cognitive

Question 1

Cross-sectional design

Answer 1

Comparing two or more groups on a particular variable at a specific time. The opposite is a longitudinal design where the researcher measures a change in an individual over time.

Question 2

Longitudinal study

Answer 2

research over a period of time using observations, interviews, or psychometric testing. (Similar to a repeated measures design in an experiment).

Question 3

Prospective research

Answer 3

A study that attempts to find a correlation between two variables by collecting data early in the life of participants and then continuing to test them over a period of time to measure change and development.

Question 4

Retrospective research

Answer 4

A study of an individual after an important change or development. For example, the study of a person after a stroke. This requires the research to “reconstruct” the life of the individual prior to the event.

Question 5

Verbal protocols

Answer 5

A type of interview where the researcher has the participant “think aloud” while solving a problem.

Question 6

Declarative memory

Answer 6

“knowing what“
is the memory of facts and events and refers to those memories that can be consciously recalled. There are two subsets of declarative memory

Question 7

Episodic memory

Answer 7

the memory of specific events that have occurred at a given time and in a given place.

memoriesof events

Question 8

Procedural memory

Answer 8

“knowing how”
is the unconscious memory of skills and how to do things.

how to perform tasks

Question 9

Semantic memory

Answer 9

general knowledge of facts and people, for example, concepts and schemas and it is not linked to time and place.

facts

Question 10

Transactive memory

Answer 10

a mechanism through which groups collectively encode, store, and retrieve knowledge

Question 11

Anchoring bias

Answer 11

an individual relies too heavily on an initial piece of information offered (known as the “anchor”) when making decisions.

Question 12

Availability heuristic

Answer 12

a mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to a given person’s mind when making a decision, rather than considering all information.

Heuristics - the process by which humans use mental shortcuts to arrive at decisions. Heuristics are simple strategies that are used to quickly form judgments, make decisions, and find solutions to complex problems.

Question 13

Central Executive

Answer 13

The part of Baddeley & Hitch’s Working Memory Model responsible for the control and regulation of cognitive processes. It binds information from a number of sources into a coherent “episode”, coordinates the sub-systems, shifts between tasks, and handles selective attention and inhibition.

control center - manages and manipulates information

Question 14

Cognitive bias

Answer 14

a systematic error in thinking that impacts one’s choices and judgments.

A systematic error, often subconsious, automatic, makes quick decesions

Cognitive biases are systematic cognitive dispositions or inclinations in human thinking and reasoning that often do not comply with the tenets of logic, probability reasoning, and plausibility. These intuitive and subconscious tendencies are at the basis of human judgment, decision making, and the resulting behavior.

Question 15

Cognitive load

Answer 15

The amount of information that working memory can hold at one time

Question 16

Cognitive misers

Answer 16

the tendency of people to think and solve problems in simpler and less effortful ways rather than in more sophisticated and more effortful ways, regardless of intelligence.

Question 17

Confabulation

Answer 17

a memory error that produces fabricated, distorted, or misinterpreted memories about oneself or the world.

Question 18

Displacement

Answer 18

In the MSMM this is what happens to information in STM if it is not rehearsed. It is displaced - or “knocked out” of the STM store by other incoming stimuli.

Question 19

Encoding

Answer 19

the initial learning of information by placing information into memory storage.

Question 20

Episodic buffer

Answer 20

The component of Baddeley & Hitch’s Working Memory Model dedicated to linking information across domains to form integrated units of visual, spatial, and verbal information with time sequencing (or chronological ordering), such as the memory of a story or a movie scene.

combines information to make it into a coherent episode

Question 21

Framing effect

Answer 21

When people react to a particular choice in different ways depending on how it is presented.

Question 22

Heuristic

Answer 22

a mental shortcut that allows people to solve problems and make judgments quickly and efficiently.

Question 23

Misinformation effect

Answer 23

when misleading information is incorporated into one’s memory after an event.

Question 24

Peak-end Rule

Answer 24

people judge an experience largely based on how they felt at its peak (i.e., its most intense point) and at its end, rather than based on the total sum or average of every moment of the experience.

Question 25

Phonological loop

Answer 25

The component of Baddeley & Hitch’s Working Memory Model responsible for processing auditory information.

Question 26

Primacy effect/recency effect

Answer 26

Primacy and recency effect are two components of the Serial Positioning Effect. The primacy effect results in a participant recalling information presented earlier in a list of information better than information presented later on. It is believed that covert rehearsal has already moved this information to LTM. The recency effect results in a participant recalling information presented at the end of a list of information better than information presented in the middle of a list. It is believed that this is because the information is still in STM and has not been displaced.

Question 27

Retrieval

Answer 27

the ability to access information from memory when you need it.

Question 28

Schema

Answer 28

mental representations that are used to organize our knowledge, assist recall, guide our behavior, predict likely happenings, and help us to make sense of current experiences.

Schemas are cognitive structures that are derived from prior experience and knowledge. They simplify reality, setting up expectations about what is probable in relation to particular social and textual contexts.

simplifies reality to organize knowledge/experiences, makes expectations

Question 29

Visuospatial Sketchpad

Answer 29

The component of Baddeley & Hitch’s Working Memory Model which holds information about what we see. It is used in the temporary storage and manipulation of spatial and visual information, such as remembering shapes and colors, or the location or speed of objects in space. It is also involved in tasks that involve planning of spatial movements, like planning one’s way through a building.

Question 30

Working memory

Answer 30

Another term for Short-Term Memory, this is the system that actively holds multiple pieces of transitory information in the mind, where they can be manipulated. Baddeley & Hitch called it working memory because they wanted to differentiate their concept from the “Memory Store Model” which made it appear that STM was simply a temporary, passive store for information.

Question 31

Dual Process Model

theory

Answer 31

Argues that there are two systems of decision-making - System 1 is an automatic, intuitive, and effortless way of thinking. System 2 is a slower, conscious, and rational mode of thinking.

Question 32

Flashbulb memory

theory

Answer 32

Brown & Kulik’s theory that memories created as the result of high levels of emotion - particularly surprise - are like “photographs.” The theory argues that a lot of peripheral and irrelevant information is retained.

Question 33

Multi-Store Memory Model

theory

Answer 33

proposed that memory consisted of three stores: a sensory register, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM).

Question 34

Prospect theory

theory

Answer 34

describes the way people choose between alternatives that involve risk, where the probabilities of outcomes are known. The theory states that people evaluate these losses and gains using heuristics.

Question 35

Reconstructive memory

theory

Answer 35

The theory that when memories are accessed, they are not retrieved as a single, whole memory, but rather as a collection of independent memories put together. It is in this “reconstructive process” that distortions occur.

Question 36

Somatic marker hypothesis

theory

Answer 36

suggests that good decision-making depends on an ability to access appropriate emotional information linked to the situation in which the decision is being made.

prior emotinal response to similair event to make decesion

Question 37

Working memory model

theory

Answer 37

the theory that short-term memory is not a single store but rather consists of a number of different stores.