Relationships

Question 1

According to evolutionary psychology:

Answer 1

• Partner preferences are driven by sexual selection
• This means that both males + females choose partners to maximise their chances of reproduction success
• Individuals with traits that maximise reproductive success (e.g. strength, height, aggression and wide hips etc) are more likely to survive + pass on genes responsible for their success

Question 2

Anisogamy

Answer 2

• Males have gametes (sperm cells) which are able to reproduce quickly with little energy expenditure
• Female gametes (eggs or ova) are much less plentiful + require far more energy to produce
• This difference (anisogamy) means that males and females use distinct strategies to chose a partner
• Generally males use intra sexual selection + females use inter sexual selection

Question 3

Intra sexual selection

Answer 3

• Is where members of one sex (usually male) compete with one another for access to the other sex
• This leads to male-female dimorphism which is accentuation of secondary sexual characteristics in those with greater reproductive fitness
• Anisogamy suggests that a male’s best evolutionary strategy is to have as many partners as possible
• Males must compete with other males to present themselves as the most attractive mate to fertile female partners
• Males might engage in mate guarding where they guard their female partner to prevent them mating with anyone else
• Males are fearful of having to raise another man’s child which is called cuckoldry

Question 4

Inter sexual selection

Answer 4

• Is where members of 1 sex (usually female) choose from available prospective mates (usually males) according to attractiveness
• Anisogamy suggests that a women’s best evolutionary strategy is to be selective when choosing a partner
• Females will tend to seek a male who displays characteristics of physical health, high status and resources
• Thus the male partner is able to protect them + provide for their children
• Although this ability may have equated to muscular strength in our evolutionary past, in modern society it is more likely to relate to occupation, social class and wealth

Question 5

Advantage of Evolutionary Explanations (1) - Buss study

Answer 5

• Buss (1989) conducted a survey of over 10000 adults in 33 countries + found that females reported valuing resource based characteristics (such as occupation)
• Whilst men valued good looks + preferred younger partners
• Cross cultural research is great evidence

Question 6

Advantage of Evolutionary Explanations (2) - Clark study

Answer 6

• Clark and Hatfield (1989) conducted a now infamous study where male and female psychology students were asked to approach fellow students of Florida State Uni (of the opposite sex) + ask them for 1 of 3 things: to go on a date, to go back to their apartment, or to go to bed with them
• About 50% of both men + women agreed to go on the date
• 69% of men agreed to visit the apartment + 75% agreed to go to bed with them
• Only 6% of women agreed to go to the apartment + 0% accepted the more intimate offer

Question 7

Disadvantage of Evolutionary Explanations (1) - deterministic

Answer 7

• The evolutionary approach is deterministic suggesting that we have little free will in partner choice
• However, everyday experience tells us that we do have some control over our partner preferences

Question 8

Disadvantage of Evolutionary Explanations (2) - other relationships

Answer 8

Evolutionary theory makes little attempt to explain other types of relationships e.g. non-heterosexual relationships + cultural variations in relationships which exist across the world e.g. arranged marriages

Question 9

Self Disclosure (SD)

Answer 9

• Several factors affect attraction in romantic relationships + one of these factors is self disclosure
• This is the revealing of personal info such as thoughts, feelings and experiences to another person

Question 10

Altman and Taylor (1973)

Answer 10

• SD is a central concept in social penetration theory proposed by Altman and Taylor
• This theory claims that by gradually revealing emotions + experiences to their partner, couples gain a greater understanding of each other + display trust
• Therefore SD will increase attraction

Question 11

Process of self disclosure

Answer 11

• As people build trust in their partner, the breadth and depth of SD will increase
• In the beginning people only disclose superficial details about themselves like hobbies and interests + gradually reveal more intimate details such as family values and difficult experiences
• Self disclosing too quickly e.g. on a first date can reduce attraction

Question 12

Reciprocal self disclosure

Answer 12

• People expect the same level of SD from others as they actually give
• The more SD someone gives, the more SD they expect in return
• This known as reciprocal SD

Question 13

Advantage of Self Disclosure (1) - Altman and Taylor

Answer 13

• Research conducted by Altman and Taylor supports the theory of SD
• They found that SD on the first date is inappropriate + didn’t increase attraction levels
• The person who was self disclosing was seen as maladjusted + not very likeable

Question 14

Advantage of Self Disclosure (2) - cultures

Answer 14

• Kito (2010) found research evidence to support the idea of SD across diff cultures
• He investigated Japanese and American students in diff types of relationships + found that SD was high for Japanese and American students in romantic relationships that were heterosexual

Question 15

Disadvantage of Self Disclosure (1) - given vs received

Answer 15

• Sprecher (2013) found research evidence that the level of SD received is the best predictor of liking and loving rather than the amount of SD given
• This goes against the idea of reciprocal SD

Question 16

Disadvantage of Self Disclosure (2) - other factors

Answer 16

• It seems unlikely that attraction to a potential partner is based on SD alone
• SD might be an important element but other factors are also needed to increase attraction such as physical attraction, similarity of attitudes + complementarity of needs

Question 17

Physical Attractiveness (PA)

Answer 17

• PA affects attraction in romantic relationships
• Men place a great deal of importance on PA when choosing a female partner in the SR + LR
• Research has shown that PA is also very important for females when choosing a male partner especially in the SR (less important in the LR)
• What is considered to be physically attractive varies across culture + time

Question 18

Halo Effect (HE)

Answer 18

• The HE is when the general impression of a person is incorrectly formed from 1 characteristic alone (e.g. PA)
• Physically attractive people are often seen as more sociable, optimistic, successful + trustworthy
• People tend to behave positively towards people who are physically attractive + this creates a self fulfilling prophecy where the physically attractive person behaves even more positively because of the positive attention they receive

Question 19

Advantage of the Halo Effect

Answer 19

• Palmer and Peterson (2012) found that physically attractive people were rated more politically knowledgeable than unattractive people
• The HE was so powerful that it persisted even when participants found that the physically attractive person has no expertise in politics

Question 20

Disadvantage of the Halo Effect

Answer 20

• Towhey (1979) asked male and female participants to rate how much they liked an individual based on a photograph
• Paricipants also completed a MACHO scale which measures sexist attitudes + behaviours
• It was found that participants who scored highly on the MACHO scale were more influenced by PA
• Those who scored low on the questionnaire didn’t value PA
• Therefore, the influence of PA is moderated by other factors e.g. personality

Question 21

The Matching Hypothesis (MH)

Answer 21

• When initiating romantic relationships, individuals seek partners that have the same social desirability as themselves
• PA becomes the major determining factor as it an accessible way for each person to rate the other person as a potential partner before forming a relationship
• Most people would prefer to form a relationship with someone who is physically attractive but in order to not be rejected many people will approach others who are of a similar attractiveness to themselves

Question 22

Advantage of the Matching Hypothesis

Answer 22

• Fangold (1988) found supportive evidence for the MH by carrying out a meta analysis of 17 studies using real life couples
• He established a strong positive correlation between the partners’ ratings of PA just as predicted by the MH

Question 23

Disadvantage of the Matching Hypothesis

Answer 23

• Sometimes a very physically attractive person forms a relationship with an unattractive person
• Often a rebalance of traits will occur where the less physically attractive person has some other traits to make up for the lack of PA e.g. being rich, having a high status or great personality
• This is called complex matching where a very attractive person forms a relationship with an unattractive person

Question 24

Kerchoff and David (1962) proposed

Answer 24

• We use filtering to reduce the field of available partners to a field of desirable partners
• When we meet a potential partner we engage in 3 levels of filtering: social demography, similarity in attitude, and complementarity of needs
• We tend to be attracted to those who pass through a series of filters

Question 25

Filters

Answer 25

• From the outset we screen out people based on age, sex, education, social background etc
• We are more attracted to people from similar backgrounds to our own
• Then we choose people who have similar attitudes to our own (similarity in attitude)
• In the longer term we choose people who complement our own traits (complementarity of needs)

Question 26

Advantage of Filter Theory

Answer 26

• Research conducted by Taylor (2010) found evidence to support filter theory
• He found that 85% of Americans who got married in 2018 had married someone from their own ethnic group, supporting the social demography part of filter theory
• Individuals seem to choose partners that are similar to them + have a similar background to them

Question 27

Disadvantage of Filter Theory (1)

Answer 27

• Levinger (1970) conducted research using 330 couples + found no evidence that similarity of attitudes or complementarity of needs was important when looking at how permanent the relationship was

Question 28

Disadvantage of Filter Theory (2)

Answer 28

• Filter theory has been criticised because it suggests that people are attracted to each other because they have similar social demography
• Anderson (2003) found from his longitudinal study of cohabiting partners that they became more similar in terms of their attitudes + emotional responses over time which increased attraction
• At the start of the relationship, their attitudes weren’t so similar - called emotional convergence

Question 29

Disadvantage of Filter Theory (3)

Answer 29

• Research using online dating has shown a lack of support for filter theory which says that it might not be an accurate way to see how relationships progress + form
• The internet has meant that there is a reduction in social demographic variables when we meet someone + it is now easier to meet people who live far away or have diff ethnicity, social class and background
• We might meet people who are outside of our demographic limits + this is very apparent now compared to the past (30 years ago)

Question 30

Social Exchange Theory

Answer 30

• This is an economic theory of romantic relationships + based on the idea that relationships are like a business where we monitor the rewards (fun, attention, esteem etc) + the costs (time, emotional strain etc)
• We all want the maximum rewards from a relationship + the minimum costs
• The theory proposes that individuals focus on getting more than they put in

Question 31

Rewards and costs

Answer 31

• The theory assumes that those who offer rewards are attractive + those who are perceived to involve great costs are less attractive
• Relationships that are mutually beneficial will succeed whereas relationships that are imbalanced will fail

Question 32

Comparison level

Answer 32

We compare our present relationship to previous relationships we have had

Question 33

Comparison level for alternatives

Answer 33

• We compare our present partner with people around us who we could potentially have a relationship with
• We look around for a better deal if our current relationship is not satisfactory

Question 34

Advantage of Social Exchange (1)

Answer 34

• Gottman (1992) found evidence that supports the social exchange theory
• He found that individuals in unsuccessful marriages frequently report a lack of positive behaviour exchanges with their partner + an excess of negative exchanges
• In successful marriages where the relationship is happy the ratio of positive to negative exchanges is 5:1 but in unsuccessful marriages the ratio is 1:1

Question 35

Advantage of Social Exchange Theory (2)

Answer 35

• Has practical applications
• Integrated couples therapy helps partners to break negative patterns of behaviours + to decrease negative exchanges whilst increasing positive exchanges
• 66% of couples reported significant improvements to their relationship after receiving this form of therapy

Question 36

Disadvantage of Social Exchange Theory (1)

Answer 36

• Moghaddam has criticised the social exchange theory as it is more applicable to individualistic cultures than collectivist cultures
• The perceived costs and rewards of relationships might be very different from one culture to the next
• Family values and compatibility might the more important rewards in collectivist cultures
• In individualist culture rewards might be viewed as a partner buying expensive presents

Question 37

Disadvantage of the Social Exchange Theory (2)

Answer 37

• The social exchange theory is rooted in the Behaviourist Approach where the focus of relationship maintenance is about rewards + operant conditioning
• However, some relationships have little rewards but many costs e.g. violent relationships + yet they still continue

Question 38

Equity Theory

Answer 38

• Is an economic model of relationships based on the idea of fairness for each partner
• It emphasises the need for each partner to experience a balance between their cost/efforts + their benefits/rewards

Question 39

Over benefit

Answer 39

If people over benefit in their relationship + receive more rewards than their partner they might feel guilt or pity

Question 40

Under benefit

Answer 40

If people under benefit in their relationship + receive less rewards than their partner they might feel angry or sad

Question 41

Rewards and Costs

Answer 41

• Distress will be felt if the relationship becomes unfair
• An imbalance of rewards can be tolerated as long as both parties accept the situation, then the relationship will continue
• An example could be that someone has lost their job + their partner will tolerate and understand this

Question 42

Equity

Answer 42

• Equity doesn’t always mean equality
• Equity also means fairness + each person in the relationship must feel that the relationship is fair
• An equitable relationship has a fair ratio of rewards and cost for each individual

Question 43

Advantage of the Equity Theory (1)

Answer 43

• DeMaris (2007) studied 1500 couples as part of the US National Survey of Families and Households
• He found that if women were under benefitting to a high degree then there was a high risk of divorce occurring
• Therefore equity + inequity seem to be very important for a women in a relationship

Question 44

Advantage of the Equity Theory (2)

Answer 44

• Brosnan (2003) found that female monkeys become angry if they were denied a prize (grapes) for playing a game with a researcher especially if they saw another monkey who had not played the game receive the grapes instead
• The monkeys got so angry that they hurled food at the experimenter
• It seems that ideas of equity are rooted in our ancient origins

Question 45

Disadvantage of the Equity Theory (1) - culture bias

Answer 45

• Equity theory is more applicable to individualistic cultures rather than collectivist cultures
• In individualistic cultures people might be more concerned with equal rewards and costs for a relationship to be successful
• However in collectivist cultures extended family networks + family values might be more important when maintaining a relationship rather than focusing on rewards and costs and the idea of equity
• Relationships in collectivist cultures might be successful due to cultural expectations + obligations of roles rather than equity of reward and costs

Question 46

Disadvantage of the Equity Theory (2)

Answer 46

• Research conducted by Mills and Clark (1982) criticised equity theory
• They said that it is not possible to assess equity in loving relationships as many of the rewards and costs are emotional/psychological + cannot be easily quantified or measured
• If we measure rewards and costs then it could diminish the quality of love in the relationship which could be damaging

Question 47

Investment Model

Answer 47

• Rusbult developed/extended social theory by proposing the investment model
• He saw commitment as a key factor in sustaining a relationship
• Commitment depends on satisfaction, comparison with alternatives and investment

Question 48

Satisfaction

Answer 48

Is determined by available alternatives, better alternatives equals less satisfaction

Question 49

Investment

Answer 49

Acts a deterrent to leaving a relationship

Question 50

Intrinsic Investment

Answer 50

Refers to the resources put into the relationship directly e.g. emotion, effort etc

Question 51

Extrinsic Investment

Answer 51

Refers to resources arising out of the relationship e.g. children, mutual friends, possessions bought together like homes etc

Question 52

Advantage of Rusbult’s Investment Model (1)

Answer 52

• Research conducted by Van Lange (1997) supports Rusbult’s investment model
• He studied students from Taiwan and Netherlands + found evidence that high commitment levels in a relationship were related to high satisfaction, low quality of alternatives and high investment size

Question 53

Advantage of Rusbult’s Investment Model (2)

Answer 53

• The investement model is very useful because it can explain infidelity
• This might occur if the person current relationship has low satisfaction + there is a high quality of alternative
• Both of these factors would lessen the commitment levels + the present relationship is likely to end
• Investement model can also explain why some people migh stay in abusive relationships
• The satisfaction is low + the victim should really leave the relationship
• However they might stay in the abusive relationship because there are a low quality of alternatives + the investement in the present relationship is too high e.g. they have children together

Question 54

Disadvantage of Rusbult’s Investment Model (1)

Answer 54

• Investment model has been criticised because it is very difficult to measure the factors of commitment, satisfaction, investment + the quality of alternatives
• Rusbult responded to the criticism + constructed an investment model scale which could measure each of the key variables in a reliable + valid way
• The research Rusbult conducted using these scales involved self reports + this then created further problems of social desirability bias

Question 55

Disadvantage of Rusbult’s Investment Model (2)

Answer 55

• Lin (1995) criticises the investment model because it does not take into account gender differences that might exist when looking at relationships
• He found that females tend to report higher satisfaction, poorer quality of alternatives, greater investement + stronger commitment in relationships compared to males

Question 56

Duck Phase Model of Relationship Breakdown

Answer 56

Relationship breakdown or termination occurs when one or both people in the relationship feel that the relationship is not working and therefore wish the relationship to end

Question 57

According to Duck, there are 4 phases in the breakdown of a relationship:

Answer 57

1. Intra-psychic processes
2. Dyadic processes
3. Social processes
4. Grave dressing processes

Question 58

1 - Intra psychic Processes

Answer 58

• This is characterised by the dissatisfied partner privately thinking about their relationship + brooding about the problems they have identified
• The dissatisfied partner focuses on their partner’s faults + the fact that they are under benefitting from the relationship
• They might feel depressed and withdraw from social interactions with their partner

Question 59

2 - Dyadic Processes

Answer 59

• The dissatisfied partner privately communicates with their partner about the fact they are dissatisfied with the relationship
• Both partners might think carefully about investments they have in the relationships e.g. house, children, joint possessions etc
• There could be reconciliation if the partner accepts the validity of the dissatisfied partner’s views and promises to change their behaviour or makes agreements to sort out issues
• Martial therapy might be useful at this points if the process becomes difficult
• The dissatisfied partner might still believe that ‘I would be justified in withdrawing from the relationship’ in which case the breakdown process would continue

Question 60

3 - Social Processes

Answer 60

• If there is a break up it is made public to friends and family which means that the problem is harder to deny or ignore
• Advice and support are given from people outside the relationship and alliances are made
• This can involve criticising former partners e.g. I never really liked him anyway’ and scapegoating ‘ It was all her fault’
• Younger adults might experience breakdown very frequently in this period of their life as they are striving to meet their ideal partner + are testing the market
• Older couples experience breakdown less frequently + some might be resigned to not finding a new partner in the future if the relationship breaks down

Question 61

4 - Grave Dressing Processes

Answer 61

• As the relationship dies and breaks down people feel the need to mourn and justify their actions
• They need to create an account of what the relationship was like + why it ended
• Ex-partners start their new lives + begin to publicise accounts of how the relationship broke down making sure their social credit remains high
• Stories might the told about betrayal or how they both struggled to make it work + different versions of the relationship are given to different people
• People might reinterpret their point of view of their ex partners e.g. ‘they were rebellious’ becomes ‘they were irresponsible’

Question 62

Advantage of Duck’s Phase Model of Relationship Breakdown (1)

Answer 62

• Duck’s phase model was devised in 1982
• However improvements have been made to the model as time has passed
• Duck teamed up with a psychologist called Rollie (2006) + introduced a fifth phase to this model called the resurrection phase
• This is where the person engages in personal growth + gets prepared for new romantic relationships

Question 63

Advantage of Duck’s Phase Model of Relationship Breakdown (2)

Answer 63

• Support for Duck’s phase model comes from the social exchange theory
• This theory would support Duck’s phase model + would state that if a relationship has high costs + minimal rewards then the relationship is not worth continuing but instead would breakdown

Question 64

Disadvantage of Duck’s Phase Model of Relationship Breakdown (1)

Answer 64

• Akert (1998) has criticised Duck’s phase model
• He found that the role that people had in deciding if the relationship should breakdown was the most important prediction of the breakdown experience
• Akert found that those who didn’t initiate the end of the relationship were the most miserable, lonely, depressed and angry in the weeks after the relationship ended
• Those who initiate the break down were the least stressed + least upset but did feel guilty

Question 65

Disadvantage of Duck’s Phase Model of Relationship Breakdown (2)

Answer 65

• Duck’s phase model ignores gender differences that exist when analysing the breakdown of relationships
• Kassin (1996) found research evidence to suggest that females emphasis unhappiness, lack of emotional support + incompatiblity as reasons for relationship breakdown
• Whereas males state a lack of sex or fun
• Females often wish to stay friends with an ex-partner but males would rather have a clean break + not stay friends

Question 66

Self disclosure in virtual relationships:

Answer 66

• One prominent difference between face to face + VR is the fact that SD tends to occur much faster VR
• One reason for this is the anonymity associated with VR
• People tend to hold off disclosing personal info in real life for fear of ridicule or rejection unless they are confident that they can trust the person + that info won’t be leaked to mutual friends
• However there is much less risk of this in VR

Question 67

Hyperpersonal Model:

Answer 67

• Walther (2011) proposed the hyperpersonal model of VR suggesting that as SD in VR happens faster than face to face ones, VR quickly become more intense + feel more intimate and meaningful
• They can also end more quickly, however, as it is difficult to sustain the same level of intense SD for a long time

Question 68

Selective self presentation:

Answer 68

• Walther also suggests that VR may feel more intimate because it is easier to manipulate SD online than face to face
• Participation in online conversations have more time to edit their responses to present themselves in a more positive light
• Walther calls this selective self presentation
• Projecting a positive image will make a virtual partner want to disclose more personal info, increasing the intensity of the relationship

Question 69

Advantage of the Hyperpersonal Model

Answer 69

• Whitty and Joinson (2009) conducted research which clearly demonstrates the effect of being online on SD
• They discovered that in online discussion forums both questions and answers tend to more direct, probing and intimate than in everyday face to face interactions as the hyperpersonal model would predict

Question 70

Disadvantage of the Hyperpersonal Model (1)

Answer 70

• Researcher has found that relationships which begin online are more durable than other relationships rather than ending more quickly as the hyperpersonal model suggests
• This is because of more open SD early on in the relationship

Question 71

Disadvantage of the Hyperpersonal Model (2)

Answer 71

• SD varies depending on the online context
• People disclose more on gaming sites than they do on dating websites because the latter is more likely to lead to face to face encounters in the future

Question 72

Reduced Cue Theory:

Answer 72

• Spoull and Kielser (1986) suggested that SD in VR might be less open and honest than face to face ones
• In real life we rely on a lot of subtle cues such as facial expressions + tone of voice which are absent in VR
• According to reduced cue theory, reduction in non verbal communication leads to deindividuation because it diminishes people’s feelings of individual identity + brings on behaviour that people usually restrain themselves from displaying such as aggression
• This may make online communications more aggressive + the consequence of this is less SD from other people as they fear verbal aggression

Question 73

Disadvantage of Reduced Cue Theory (1)

Answer 73

• RCT was developed when social media lacked face to face interaction meaning they were much less rich in non verbal communication than real life interactions
• However advanced technology allows for live interaction which is much more similar to real life interactions

Question 74

Disadvantage of Reduced Cue Theory (2)

Answer 74

• Non verbal communication is not absent from VR the cues are just different e.g. emoticons are used as substitutes for facial expressions + intonation
• The timing of responses is also an important form of non verbal communication

Question 75

Absence of gating in virtual relationships:

Answer 75

• In real life, our attraction to other people is greatly influenced by their appearance, mannerisms and factors such as age and ethnicity
• Being online removes factors that normally act as a barrier (gate) to interaction
• This creates more opportunities for shy or less attractive people to develop romantic relationships

Question 76

The absence of gating online:

Answer 76

• Means that people can establish virtual identities they could never create face to face
• E.g. a shy person can become more outgoing

Question 77

Advantages of Absence of Gating in Virtual Relationships (1)

Answer 77

• There are social benefits to the absence of gating in VR
• For example, the absence of gating could reduce loneliness due to making it easier for some people to access social interactions + to seek out company
• Rosenfeld and Thomas (2012) showed the importance of online communication for developing romantic relationships
• Out of 4000 participants studied 72% of those with internet access were married or had a romantic partner compared to only 36% of those without internet access
• These findings suggest that a virtual environment helps to establish + maintain romantic relationships

Question 78

Advantages of Gating in Virtual Relationships (2)

Answer 78

• Zahoa (2008) claims that the absence of gating has positive effects on people’s online relationships
• People create an online identity that is appreciated by others + this enhances their overall self image + increase the quality of their face to face relationships as well

Question 79

Disadvantages of Gating in Virtual Relationships (1)

Answer 79

• People are involved in both online and offline relationships everyday (it’s not an either or situation)
• This means that there are fewer differences between VR + face to face relationships than research seems to suggest + research examining VR often fails to take into account the effect of these relationships on a persons offline interactions and vice versa

Question 80

Disadvantages of Gating in Virtual Relationships (2) - temporal validity

Answer 80

• Most of the research examining gating was conducted in the late 1900s and early 2000s
• As technology is changing rapidly so is the nature of online relationships therefore psychological research in this area risks becoming outdated by the time it is published
• This lowers the temporal validity of research into VR

Question 81

Parasocial relationships (PR)

Answer 81

Refers to one sided relationships with a celebrity, a prominent person in the community or a fictional character when a fan knows everything about the subject of their adoration + feels very close to them but there is no chance of reciprocity

Question 82

Giles and Maltby (2006) identified 3 levels of parasocial relationships using the celebrity attitude scale in a large scale survey:

Answer 82

1. Entertainment-Social
2. Intense-Personal
3. Borderline Pathological

Question 83

1. Entertainment-Social

Answer 83

• Most people engage in PR at some point in their lives but most stay at this first level
• Celebrities are seen as a source of entertainment + as a topic of light hearted gossiping with friends
• This is the least intense level of celebrity worship

Question 84

2. Intense-Personal

Answer 84

• This is a deeper level of parasocial relationships
• At this level a person has a more intense relationship with a celebrity
• For example, they may see them as a soulmate + they have an intense interest in the celebrity’s personal life such as their dress sense, food they like, entertainment in which they take part

Question 85

3. Borderline pathological

Answer 85

• This is the most intense level of parasocial relationships
• At this level a person takes celebrity worship to an extreme has obsessive fantasies about the celebrity spends large sums of money to obtain memorabilia + may engage in illegal activities such as stalking
• At this level it is also usual for people to believe that if only they were given a chance to meet their favourite celebrity in person, their feelings would be reciprocated

Question 86

Advantage of Levels of Parasocial Relationships (1)

Answer 86

• A psychologist found a significant positive correlation between the amount of TV participants watched, the degree to which if they perceived a TV character as real + the level of their parasocial relationship

Question 87

Advantage of Levels of Parasocial Relationships (2)

Answer 87

• There is research support for the claim that attractiveness increases the likelihood of a PR
• The attractiveness of a celebrity influences the development of the 3 levels of PR from members of the public

Question 88

Disadvantage of Levels of Parasocial Relationships (1)

Answer 88

• Educational levels of individuals needs to be taken into account
• Highly educated individuals may perceive the majority of celebrities as less educated than themselves therefore are less likely to engage in parasocial relationships

Question 89

Disadvantage of Levels of Parasocial Relationships (2)

Answer 89

• It is recommended that training should occur in schools to highlight the dangers of PR as it often results in an individual having unrealistic goals to be more similar to celebrities
• For example, one may develop an eating disorder to obtain the slim body of a media star

Question 90

Absorption Addiction Model (AAM)

Answer 90

• The AAM (McCutcheon et al 2002) attempts to explain why people develop parasocial relationships
• It argues that pursuing parasocial relationships makes up for deficits in an individual’s real life relationships
• Relationships with celebrities are seen as an attempt to cope with or escape from reality

Question 91

Parasocial relationships also:

Answer 91

• Enable individuals to develop a sense of personal identity + achieve a sense of fulfilment
• People with an addictive nature will escalate thru a series of stages (absorption + addiction) until they becomes completely obsessed with a celebrity’s life

Question 92

There are 2 components to the AAM:

Answer 92

1. Absorption
2. Addiction

Question 93

1. Absorption

Answer 93

• Seeking fulfilment in celebrity worship motivates one to focus all their attention on the celebrity to become preoccupied in their existence + identify with them

Question 94

2. Addiction

Answer 94

• The individual sustains their commitment to the relationship by feeling a stronger + close involvement with the celebrity
• This leads to more extreme behaviours + delusional thinking e.g. stalking a celebrity because there is a belief they share mutual feelings

Question 95

Advantage of Absorption Addiction Model (1)

Answer 95

• Research supports a link between loneliness + engaging in parasocial relationships
• Greenwood and Long (2009) found some evidence that people may develop PR as a way of dealing with a recent loss or loneliness
• Stalkers often have a history of failed sexual relationships at the time of stalking
• Stalking in such cases is a reaction to social incompetence, isolation and loneliness

Question 96

Advantage of Absorption Addiction Model (2)

Answer 96

• Maltby (2005) measured the relationship between PR + body image in teenagers
• They found that teenage girls who engaged in PR tended to have a poor body image especially if they particularly admired a celebrity’s physical appearance

Question 97

Disadvantage of Absorption Addiction Model (1)

Answer 97

• Most research in PR is correlational
• This means that cause and effect can’t be clearly established lowering the scientific explanatory power
• For example, while a significant correlation was found between poor body image + intensive PR in teenage girls this doesn’t mean that intense PR causes poor body image
• It may mean that girls who already have poor body image tend to engage in a more intensive level of PR to enhance their self esteem

Question 98

Disadvantage of Absorption Addiction Model (2)

Answer 98

• The AAM is better suited to describing levels of PR than explaining how people develop these attitudes
• This model attempts to establish universal principles of behaviour + as such misses out on deep insight into the reasons for behaviour
• Looking into particular instances of PR may be better suited to uncovering the reason for why people develop them

Question 99

Attachment Theory

Answer 99

• PR can be linked to attachment problems in childhood
• Several characteristics of PR are linked to attachment e.g. protest at loss of attachment figure is similar to separation protest seen in infants
• People with childhood attachment problems form PR to meet their need for attachment/affection

Question 100

Bowlby’s Theory

Answer 100

• Some psychologists use Bowlby’s monotropic theory + maternal deprivation theory to explain PR
• Bowlby noted that failure to form a monotropic attachment before the critical period of 2 years of age or developing a poor attachment has several long term impacts
• People can become affectionaless psychopaths, develop a poor working model, become delinquents etc
• Bowlby’s theories predict that individuals who didn’t form a strong bond with a primary caregiver in early childhood will try to find an attachment substitute as adults + engaging in PR allows them to do this

Question 101

Types of attachment

Answer 101

According to the description of the types of attachment described by Ainsworth: individuals who formed insecure resistant relationships with their primary caregiver (PCG) in early childhood are more likely to form PR as they are too afraid of the criticism and rejection that are a part of real life relationships

Question 102

Ainsworth’s findings

Answer 102

• As demonstrated by his findings in the strange situation study, insecure resistant children are very clingy to their mothers + show less explorative behaviour than children of other attachment types as they don’t feel safe enough to leave their parent
• They also show great distress when their mothers leave the room
• According to Hazan and Shaver (1987) this behaviour translates into clingy + jealous behaviour in adulthood making it difficult for people to develop committed and lasting romantic relationships
• Intensive PR allows people with an insecure resistant attachment style to engage in a fantasy about the perfect relationships without the risk of rejection

Question 103

Advantage of the Attachment Theory (1)

Answer 103

• Cole and Leets (1999) found that individuals with an insecure resistant attachment style were more likely to engage in PR with their fav TV personality + insecure avoidant individuals were the least likely to engage in PR
• This suggests there is a relationship between early attachment in childhood + adult PR

Question 104

Advantage of the Attachment Theory (2)

Answer 104

• Research has found 63% of stalkers experienced loss of PCG in childhood usually from parental separation
• 50% reported childhood emotional, physical or sexual abuse from their PCG
• This supports the idea that disturbed attachment in childhood is related to extreme forms of PR as an adult

Question 105

Disadvantage of the Attachment Theory (1)

Answer 105

• Research studies into the link between infant attachment type + PR rely on participants memories about their early lives to assess their infant attachment style
• Such recollections are likely to be flawed because our memories of the past are not always accurate meaning the studies aren’t valid

Question 106

Disadvantage of the Attachment Theory (1)

Answer 106

• PR can be positive + not just about fulfilling attachment needs
• For example they allow a safe exploration of emotions