Forensic Psychology Flashcards
1
Q
Offender Profiling
A
- Is a tool employed by the police to narrow down the list of likely suspects
- OP is based on the idea that the characteristics of the offender can be deduced from details of the offence + crime scene
- Profiling methods usually involve scrutiny of the crime scene + analysis of evidence (e.g. witness reports) to generate a hypothesis about the probable characteristics of the offender (age, background, occupation etc)
2
Q
Top Down Approach
A
- Templates of organised offender + disorganised offender are pre-existing in the mind of the profiler
- Evidence from crime scene + other details of the crime/victim/context are then used to fit the offender into 1 of the 2 pre-existing categories + determine the offender as one of the types
3
Q
Organised Offenders
A
- These offenders show evidence of having planned the crime in advance + the victim is deliberately targeted + has a preference for a certain type of victim
- They maintain a high level of control during the crime + operate with surgical precision + little evidence left behind at the crime scene
- Offenders tend to be above average intelligence + in a skilled profession + are socially and sexually competent + often married and have children
4
Q
Disorganised Offenders
A
- These offenders show little evidence of planning suggesting the offence may have been spontaneous
- Crime scene tends to reflect the impulsive nature of the attack + body is usually left at the scene + appears to have been very little control on the part of the offender
- Offender tends to be of lower than average intelligence + be in unskilled work or unemployed + often have a history of sexual dysfunction or failed relationships + tend to live alone + often relatively close to where the offence took place
5
Q
Disadvantage of Top Down Approach (1) - limited application
A
- TD profiling only applies to certain crimes e.g. rape, arson, cult killings + murders that involve macabre practices such as sadistic torture, dissection etc
- Common offences such as burglary don’t lend themselves to TD profiling because the crime scene reveals very little about the offender
6
Q
Disadvantage of Top Down Approach (2) - unrepresentative
A
- The organised or disorganised distinction was developed based on interviews with 36 serial killers in the USA
- Critics have pointed out that this is too small + unrepresentative sample to base a typology system
7
Q
Disadvantage of Top Down Approach (3) - self report
A
- TD profiling was developed based on interviews with 36 sexually motivated serial killers including Ted Bundy and Charles Manson
- Canter argued that it’s not valid to rely on self report data from convicted serial killers when constructing a classification system
8
Q
Disadvantage of Top Down Approach (4) - types of serial killers
A
- The organised or disorganised distinction is overly simplistic
- Holmes (1989) suggests there are 4 types of serial killers:
1. Visionary serial killer - kill because God or the Devil is directing them to + suffer from psychosis
2. Mission serial killer - kill to eradicate a group of people they consider to be undesirable
3. Hedonistic serial killer - kill for the thrill + sexual pleasure
4. Power serial killer - kill to have complete control over the victim
9
Q
Bottom Up Approach
A
- Was developed in the UK
- Aim of this approach to generate a picture of the offender including their likely characteristics, routine behaviour + social background
- This is achieved thru systematic analysis of evidence left at the crime scene
- BU approach doesn’t begin with fixed typologies (as the TD approach does) instead the profile is data driven + the profiler engages in rigorous scrutiny of the details of the offence
10
Q
Investigative Psychology
A
- Aim of investigative psych is to establish behaviours that are likely to occur at certain crime scenes
- This is done to create a statistical database which then acts as a baseline for comparison
- Specific details of an offence can then be matched against this database in order to reveal statistically probable details about the offender (their personal history, family background etc)
- This can help determine whether multiple offences are linked + likely to have been committed by the same individual
11
Q
Interpersonal coherence
A
- Is a concept central to investigative psych
- The way in which an offender behaves at a crime scene + how they interact with the victim may reflect their behaviour in everyday situations
- E.g. whilst some rapists want to control + humiliate their victims others can be apologetic
- This might tell the police how the offender relates to women more generally
- The significance of time and place of the crime is also a key variable + may indicate where the offender lives
12
Q
Forensic Awareness
A
- Describes individuals who have made an attempt to cover their tracks e.g. hide the body/murder weapon or clean the crime scene
- Their behaviour may indicate that they have been subject of police interrogation in the past or even that the police already have their DNA or fingerprints on file
13
Q
Geographical profiling
A
- Is the study of spatial behaviour in relation to crime + offenders
- It focuses on the location of the crime as a clue to where the offender lives, works and socialises
- Relevant data includes the crime scene, local crime stats, local transport and geographical spread of similar crimes
- The assumption is that a serious offender will restrict their criminal activities to an area they are familiar with + the offenders base will therefore be in the middle of the spatial pattern of their crime scenes
- Earlier crimes are likely to be closer to the offenders base than later crimes
- As an offender becomes more confident they will travel further from their comfort zone
14
Q
Canter and Larkin (1993) propose 2 models of offender behaviour:
A
- The marauder - who operates close to their home
- The commuter - who is likely to have travelled a distance away from their home
- The spatial pattern of their crime scenes will still form a circle around their home
- This becomes more apparent the more offences that are committed
- The spatial pattern of a crime can also tell the police whether the crime is planned or opportunistic + other important facts about the offender e.g. mode of transport, employment status, approximate age etc
15
Q
Advantage of Bottom Up Approach (1) - more scientific
A
Canter argues that BU profiling is more scientific than TD profiling because it is more grounded in evidence and psychological theory + less driven by speculation and hunches than TD profiling
16
Q
Advantage of Bottom Up Approach (2) - wide application
A
BU profiling unlike TD profiling can be applied to a wide variety of offences such as burglary and theft as well as murder and rape
17
Q
Disadvantage of Bottom Up Approach (1)
A
- Copson (1995) surveyed 48 police forces + found that the advice provided by a profiler was judged to be useful in 83% of cases
- But in only 3% of cases did it lead to the accurate identification of the offender
- Kocsis (2002) found that chemistry students produced a more accurate offender profile than experienced senior detectives
- This implies that the BU approach is little more than common sense and guess work
18
Q
Disadvantage of Bottom Up Approach (2)
A
- There have been some significant failures when using BU profiling
- In 1992, 21 yo Rachel Nickell was stabbed 47 times + sexually assulated in a frenzied attack on Wimbledon Common
- In 2008, following examination of forensic evidence Robert Napper was convicted of the murder
- He had been ruled out early on in the inital investigation because he was several inches taller than the profile had claimed the offender would be
19
Q
Historical Approach to Offending
A
- In 1876, Lombroso (an Italian physician) wrote a book in which he suggested that criminal were genetic throwbacks, a primitive sub species who were biologically different from non criminals
- Offenders were seen by Lombroso as lacking evolutionary development + their savage and untamed nature meant that they would find it impossible to adjust to the demands of civilised society + inevitably turn to crime
- Lombroso saw criminal behaviour as a natural tendency rooted in the genealogy of those who engaged in it
20
Q
Atavistic Form
A
- Lombroso argued that the criminal sub species could be identified by a set of physiological characteristics that were linked to particular types of crime
- These were biologically determined atavistic characteristics mainly features of the face and head + which indicate that criminals are physically different from the rest of us
21
Q
Atavistic
A
Meaning reversion to something ancestral
22
Q
Features of the atavistic form:
A
- In terms of cranial characteristics, the atavistic form included: a narrow sloping brow, a strong prominent jaw, high cheekbones, facial asymmetry, dark skin, extra toes, nipples or fingers
- Murders were described as having: bloodshot eyes, curly hair, long ears
- Sexual deviants as having glinting eyes, swollen/fleshy lips + projecting ears
- Lips of fraudsters were thin and reedy
- Besides physical traits Lombroso also suggested that there were other characteristics including insensitivity to pain, use of criminal slang, tattoos, unemployment
23
Q
Lombroso’s research
A
- He examined the facial + cranial features of Italian convicts (both living and dead) + proposed that the atavistic form was associated with a no of physical anomalies which were key indicators of criminality
- In total he examined the skulls of 383 dead criminals and 3839 living ones + concluded that 40% of criminal acts could be accountable by the criminal subculture
24
Q
Advantage of Atavistic Form (1) - shift
A
- The atavistic form has an important role in the shift away from theories based on feeble-mindedness, wickedness + demonic possession
- It was the forerunner to most biological explanations (of evolutionary influences + genetics)
25
Q
Disadvantage of Atavistic Form (1) - racist
A
- Several critics have drawn attention to the distinct racist undertones in Lombroso’s work
- Many of the features he described e.g. dark skin + curly hair are most likely to be found in people of African descent
- His claim that atavistic characteristics were uncivilised, savage, primitive supported the eugenic philosophy
26
Q
Disadvantage of Atavistic Form (2) - control group
A
- Lombroso didn’t compare his criminal sample to a non-criminal control group
- If he had done so then the differences he reported may have disappeared
27
Q
Disadvantage of Atavistic Form (3) - poverty
A
- Even if criminals have atavistic characteristics this does not necessarily mean that these characteristics cause their criminal behaviour
- Facial and cranial features can be influenced by poverty, poor diet which could also lead people to crime
28
Q
Genetic Explanations (GE)
A
- GE for crime suggest that potential offenders inherit a gene or combination of genes that predisposes them to commit crime
- Criminal behaviour could be polygenic (means that no one single gene is responsible for offending)
- Instead many genes might be responsible for causing criminal behaviour known as candidate genes
29
Q
Lange (1930) - GE
A
- Investigated 13 monozygotic (identical) twins + 17 dizygotic (non-identical) twins
- At least 1 of the twins in each pair had served time in prison
- 10 of the 13 pairs of MZ twins had both spent time in prison whereas only 2 of the 17 pairs of DZ twins had both spent time in prison
30
Q
Tilhonen (2014) - GE
A
- Conducted a genetic analysis of over 900 Finnish offenders which revealed abnormalities on 2 genes that may be associated with violent crime
- First was MAOA gene - controls dopamine + serotonin in the brain + has been linked to aggressive behaviour
- Second was CDH13 gene - has been linked to susbstance abuse + attention deficit disorder
- Within the Finnish sample individuals with this high risk combination of genes were 13 times more likely to have a history of violent behaviour compared to a control group
31
Q
Diathesis stress model
A
- Holds that genetics influence criminal behaviour but this is at moderated by the effects of the environment
- A tendency towards criminal behaviour may come thru a combination of genetic predisposition + biological or psychological triggers such as being raised in a dysfunctional environment
32
Q
Neural Explanations - NE
A
- Evidence suggest that there may be neural differences in the brains of criminals compared with non criminals
- Much of the evidence in this area has investigated individuals diagnosed with anti social personality disorder (ASPD)
- ASPD is associated with reduced emotional responses + lack of empathy, a condition that characterises many convicted criminals
33
Q
Raine (2000) - NE
A
- There are several dozen brain imaging studies demonstrating that individuals with ASPD have reduced activity in the pre frontal cortex of the brain
- This is the brain area that regulates emotional behaviour
- Raine found an 11% reduction in the volume of grey matter in the prefrontal cortex of people with ASPD compared to a control group
34
Q
Keysers (2011) - NE
A
- Recent research has suggested that criminals with ASPD can experience empathy but that they do so more sporadically than the rest of us
- Keysers found that only when criminals were asked to emphathise (with a person on a film experiencing pain) their empathy reaction (controlled by mirror neurones in the brain) activated
- This suggested that ASPD individuals aren’t totally without empathy but may have a neural switch that needs to be turned on to experience it
- In a normal brain the empathy switch is permanently switched on
35
Q
Disadvantage of Genetic and Neural Explanations (1) - concordance rates
A
- Concordance rates of MZ twins are not high + leave plenty of room for non genetic environmental factors
- Concordance rates may be due to shared learning rather than genetics
36
Q
Disadvantage of Genetic and Neural Explanations (2) - vague
A
- The term offending behaviour is too vague
- Some specific forms of crime may be more biological than others e.g. physical aggression
37
Q
Disadvantage of Genetic and Neural Explanations (3)
A
- The genetic and neural explanations of criminal behaviour is an example of biological reductionism
- Criminality is complex + explanations that reduce offending behaviour to a gene or imbalanced neurotransmitter may be inappropriate and overly simplistic
- Criminal behaviour does seem to run in families but so does emotional instability, mental illness, social deprivation, poverty
- Twin studies never show 100% concordance rates in MZ twins so genetics can’t be the only explanation for criminal behaviour
38
Q
Disadvantage of Genetic and Neural Explanations (4)
A
- The genetic and neural explanation of criminal behaviour is also an example of biological determinism
- This presents us with a dilemma for our legal system
- If someone has a criminal gene they can’t have personal + moral responsibility for their crime
- If this is the case it would be unethical to punish someone who doesn’t have free will
39
Q
Eysenck (1947) proposed that behaviour could be represented along 2 dimensions:
A
- Introversion/extraversion and neuroticism/stability
- The 2 dimensions combine to form a variety of personality traits
- Eysenck later added a third dimension - psychoticism
40
Q
General Personality Theory
A
- According to Eysenck our personality traits are biological in origin + come about thru the type of nervous system we inherit from our parents
- Therefore all personality types including the criminal personality type have an innate biological basis
41
Q
Extraverts nature
A
- Have an underactive nervous system so they are constantly seeking excitement and stimulation + may engage in risk taking behaviour
- Difficult to condition + so don’t learn from their mistakes
42
Q
Neurotics nature
A
Individuals tend to be nervous, jump and over anxious + their general instability means their behaviour is often difficult to predict
43
Q
Criminal personality type
A
- A criminal personality type of neurotic-extravert
- A combination of all of the characteristics and behaviours of extraversion and neuroticism
- In addition Eysenck suggested a typical offender will also score highly on psychoticism - cold, unemotional and prone to aggression
44
Q
Socialisation
A
- In Eysenck’s theory personality is linked to criminal behaviour via socialisation
- Eysenck saw criminal behaviour as developmentally immature in that it is selfish + concerned with immediate gratification
- During socialisation children are taught to delay gratification + be socially orientated
- Eysenck believed that people with high extraversion and neuroticism scores had nervous systems that made them difficult to condition as a result they will not easily learn to respond to their anti social impulses with anxiety
- Consequently they are more likely to act anti socially in situations where the opportunity presents itself
45
Q
Eysenck Personality Inventory
A
- Eysenck developed the psychological test which located respondents along the extraversion and neuroticism dimensions to determine their personality type
- A later scale was introduced that is used to measure psychoticism
46
Q
Disadvantage of Eysenck Theory (1)
A
- Farmington (1982) reviewed several studies + reported that offenders tended to score higher on psychoticism but NOT on extraversion and neuroticism than non offenders
47
Q
Disadvantage of Eysenck Theory (2)
A
- The idea that all offending behaviour can be explained by a single personality type has been heavily criticised as being simplistic
- Crime is too varied + complex of a behaviour to be due to one single personality type
- The type of individual who commits murder is likely to be very different to one who commits fraud
48
Q
Disadvantage of Eysenck Theory (3)
A
- Eysenck theory is out of step with modern personality theory
- Digmans (1990) Five Factor Model of personality suggests openness, agreeableness and conscientiousness are important personality dimensions in addition to extraversion and neuroticism
- Using this model multiple combinations are available
49
Q
Disadvantage of Eysenck Theory (4)
A
- Eysenck’s theory is based on the idea that it is possible to measure personality through psychological tests
- Critics have argued personality may not be reducible to a score in this way
- Many psychologists believed there is no such thing as stable personality
- On a daily basis peoples personality changes depending on who they are with + the situation they are in
50
Q
Moral reasoning
A
Refers to the process where an individual draws upon their own value system to determine whether an action is right or wrong
51
Q
Kohlberg (1973) - Moral Reasoning
A
- Proposed that the quality of people’s judgments of right and wrong can be summarised by a stage theory or moral development
- He based his stages on people’s response to moral dilemmas
