Relationships

Question 1

What does natural selection suggest?

Answer 1

Suggests that characteristics that confer a survival advantage are passed on to produce offspring with the best genes. This is because these characteristics are adaptive and therefore the individuals are more likely to survive and be able to reproduce.

Question 2

What is sexual selection?

Answer 2

An evolutionary explanation of partner prefrence. it suggests that charcteristics that confer a reproductive advantage (i.e. are attractive to the opposite sex or provide an advantage over competitors for reproductive rights) are passed on to produce offspring with the best genes. This is effectively ‘survival of the sexist’. In sexual selection, an individual’s survival is not at stake, but rather their ability to leave more descendants.

Question 3

What is human reproductive behaviour?

Answer 3

Any behaviours (actions) that relate to opportunites to reproduce and therefore increase survival chances of our genes.

Question 4

What is anisogamy?

Answer 4

The difference between male and female sex cells.

Question 5

What are the charcteristics of sperm?

Answer 5

• Extremely small
• Highly mobile
• Created continously in vast numbers
• Created from puberty to an old age
• Do not require a great expenditure of energy to produce

Question 6

What are the charcteristics of ova?

Answer 6

• Relatively large
• Static
• Produced at intervals
• Produced at intervals for a limited number of fertile years
• Require a huge investment of energy to produce

Question 7

What are the two types of mating strategies and who uses them?

Answer 7

Inter-sexual selection (females use to select males) and intra-sexual selection (males use between each other to be the one that is selected)

Question 8

Why is inter-sexual selection used by women?

Answer 8

Anisogamy dictates that the consquences for women choosing substandard partner is much more serious than for males because females make greater investment in terms of time, commitment and other resources before, during and after the birth of her offspring.
Combinded with there being no shortage of fertile males, it pays of for women to be especially choosy in short-term relationships so that any offspring are of a higher quality (i.e. have the best genes) and so their genes are much more likely to be passed on.

Question 9

What is the females optimum strategy for relationships?

Answer 9

For both long-term and short-term relationships it is to prefer and select a genetically fit partner (e.g. tall, strong and so are able to physically protect her and her children) who is willing to provide resources (e.g. shelter for her and her offspring, food ect). This results in a preference for wealthy, older males.

Question 10

Why are men less choosy about who they mate with?

Answer 10

Anisogamy dictates that the male’s optimum strategy is to mate with as many fertile females as possible. This is because of the minimal energy required to produce sperm and the relative lack of post-coital reponsibility. This results in an increased probability that they will reproduce and pass on their genes.

Question 11

What do men prefer in women?

Answer 11

Males have a distinct preference for fertility and sensitivity to the indicators of youth (e.g. certain facial fetaures) and fertility (e.g. certain body shapes like an hourglass figure) as these are signs of reporductive value.

Question 12

Evaluation: Sexual selection: What happened in Clarke and Hatfield’s (1989) study?

Answer 12

Sent male and female psychology students out across a university campus. They approaches other students individually with this question: ‘I have been noticing you around campus. I find you very attractive. Would you go to bed with me tonight?’ Not a single female student agreed to the request, whereas 75% of men did, immediately.

Question 13

Evaluation: Sexual selection: How does Clarke and Hatfield’s (1989) study impact our understanding of relationships between sexual selection and human reproductive behaviour?

Answer 13

Supports sex differences in human reproductive behaviour are precited by anisogamy from sexual selection theory and supports the predictions about short-term mating strategies. Males evolved innate mechanisms favouring short-term relationships to maximise their chances of reproductive success, whilst women are choosier to increase the likelihood of high quality offspring. Therefore, this supports the validity of the theory as an explanation of reproductive behaviour.

Question 14

Evaluation: Sexual selection: Counter argument for Clarke and Hatfield’s (1989) study?

Answer 14

It could be argued that there is a gender bias to attribute short-term mating strategies only to men, as even though men are more liekly to want to casual sex and a variety of sexual partners, these mechanisms could have evolved without the presence of willing females. Perhaps there may have been benefits for women to undergo in short-term relationships e.g. allowing them to leave unrewarding relationships if their partner discovered their infidelity or to increase the genetic diversity if their offspring. This type of gender bias is known as alpha bias as it overestimates the differneces between the sexes.

Question 15

Evaluation: Sexual selection: What did Singh (1993, 2002) study?

Answer 15

Studied the waist: hip ratio in females. He found that what matters in male prefrence in not female body size so much, but the ratio of waist to hip sizes. Up to a point, men generally find any waist and hip sizes attractive as long as the ratio of one to the other is about 0.7. This combination of wider-hips and narrower waist is attractive because it is an ‘honest signal’ (hard to fake) that the women is fertile but not currently pregnant.

Question 16

Evaluation: Sexual selection: How does Singh’s (1993, 2002) study impact our understanding of relationships between sexual selection and human reproductive behaviour?

Answer 16

Supports sex differences in partner preference’s that were predicted by anisogamy from sexual selection theory in that it suggests that men have an innate adaptive mechanism to identify and prefer women with a low waist: hip ratio as the most attractive as it’s a sign of reproductive value, increasing their likelihood of reproducing. This can be seen through history in fashion through corsets. This supports the validity of the theory as an explantion of human reproductive behaviour.

Question 17

Evaluation: Sexual selection: What is a weakness of sexual selection theory?

Answer 17

Partner preference over the last century have undoubtedly been influenced by rapidly changing social norms of sexual behaviour. These develop much faster than evolutionary timescales imply and have instead become about due to cultural factors, such as availability of contraception. Women’s greater role in the workplace means that they are no longer dependent on men to provide for them. Researchers argue that this social change has consquences for women’s mate preferences which may no longer be resource-ordinated. Research comapred partner preferences in China over 25 years and found that some had changed and some had remained the same, corresponding with huge social chnages in the time.

Question 18

Evaluation: Sexual selection: How does the weakness of the theory impact our understanding of relationships between sexual selection and human reproductive behaviour?

Answer 18

This is a weakness of the sex differences in partner prefrence that are predicted by anisogamy from sexual selection in that mate preferences are the outcome of a combination of evolutionary and cultural influences. Any thoery that fails to consider both is therefore a limited explanation of human reporductive behaviour and so we can’t argue the theory is completely valid.

Question 19

Evaluation: Sexual selection: What did Waynforth and Dunbar (1995) study?

Answer 19

Studied lonley heart adverts in American newspapers. These were opportunites for men and women to describe their qualities that they desired in a partner whilst also sharing what they had to offer. The researchers found that women more than men tended to offer physcial attractiveness and indicators of youth (e.g. flirty, exciting, curvy, sexy). Men on the other hand, offered resources more than women did (e.g. sucessful, fit, mature, ambitious) and sought relative youth and physical attractiveness.

Question 20

Evaluation: Sexual selection: How does Waynforth and Dunbar’s (1995) study impact our understanding of relationships between sexual selection and human reproductive behaviour?

Answer 20

This supports sex differences predicted by anisogamy and supports predications for long-term mating strategies for women (preferring reources to ensure provision for her and her offspring and therefore teh offspring surviving), and short and long-term strategies for men (preferring signs of fertility to increase their likelihood of reproducing). This therefore reflects an innate adaptive mechanism for identifying and preferring signs of fertility and resources, supporting the theory.

Question 21

What are the two theories of physical attractiveness?

Answer 21

Physical attractiveness theory and the matching hypothesis theory

Question 22

Physical attractiveness theory: What is physical attractiveness?

Answer 22

Is thought to be an important factor in the formation of romantic relationships. It usually applies specifically to how appealing we find a person’s face. There exists the assumption that we seek to form relationships with the most attractive person available.

Question 23

Physical attractiveness theory: Why is physical attractiveness important?

Answer 23

One explanation for the importnace of physical attractiveness in attraction comes from evolutionary theory. Shackleford and Larsen found (1997) found that people with symmetrical faces are rated as more attractive. This is because it may be an honest signal of genetic fitness (you can’t fake it)!

Question 24

Physical attractiveness theory: Why other faces are people attracted to and why?

Answer 24

Faces with neotenous (baby-face) features such as widely seperated and large eyes, a delicate chin and a small nose. This is because they trigger a protective or caring instinct.

Question 25

Physical attractiveness theory: Why does physical attractiveness matter?

Answer 25

Because of the physical attractiveness stereotype.

Question 26

Physical attractiveness theory: What does the physical attractiveness stereotype suggest?

Answer 26

That attractive people are kind, strong, sociable and succesful compared to unattractive people. This makes them even more attractive to us, so we behave positively towards them (self-fulfilling prophecy).

Question 27

Physical attractiveness theory: What is the halo effect?

Answer 27

One distinguishing feature of a person (their physcial attractiveness in this case) disproportionately infleunces our judgements of their other attributes (their personality)

Question 28

Matching hypothesis: Who does the matching hypothesis suggest we are attracted to?

Answer 28

Because common-sense tells us that we can’t all form realtionships with the most attractive people, the matching hypothesis suggests that people are attracted to people who approximately ‘match’ us in physical attractiveness.

Question 29

Matching hypothesis: What must we do?

Answer 29

We must make a realistic judgement about our ‘value’ to a potential partner.

Question 30

Matching hypothesis: What is our choice of partner a compromise between?

Answer 30

Compromise between desiring the most physically attractive partner possible and avoiding being rejected by someone who is unlikely to consider us physically attractive.

Question 31

Physical attractiveness: Physical attractiveness theory: What is supporting evidence?

Answer 31

Palmer and Peterson (2012) found that physically attractive people were rated as more politically knowledgeable and competent than unattractive people. This halo effect was so powerful that it persisted even when partipants knew that these ‘knowledgeable’ people had no particular expertise. This existence of the halo effect has been found to apply in many other areas of life too.

Question 32

Physical attractiveness: Physical attractiveness theory: What does the supporting evidence tell us about physical attractiveness in terms of attraction?

Answer 32

This supports that physical attractiveness is an important factor in the formation of relationships, romantic or otherwise. By being physically attractive, it seems that this distinguishing feature disproportionately influences voters’ judgements of the politicans’ knowledge and competency (halo effect). This has implications for the political process; it suggests that there are dangers for democracy if politicans are judged as suitable for office just because they are considered physically attractive enough by voters.

Question 33

Physical attractiveness: Physical attractiveness theory: What is undermining evidence?

Answer 33

Some people do not seem to attach much importance to physical attractiveness. In a study by Touhey (1979), male and female partipants rated how much they would like a person based on their photograph and some biological features. They also completed a questionaire designed to measure sexist attitudes and behaviours. It was found that the partipants who scored highly on the questionaire were more infleunced by physical attractiveness of the individual when judging likeability. Low scores were less sensitive to this influence.

Question 34

Physical attractiveness: Physical attractiveness theory: What does the undermining evidence tell us about physical attractiveness in terms of attraction?

Answer 34

This suggests that the effects of physical attractiveness can be moderated by other factors, and so challenges the idea that it is a significance factor in relationship formation for all potential partners.

Question 35

Physical attractiveness: Matching hypothesis theory: What is supporting evidence?

Answer 35

Berscheid et al. (1971) invited male and female participants to a dance. They were rated for physical attractiveness by objective observers and also completed a questionaire about themselves. They were then able to select a partner for the dance form people of varying degrees of attractiveness. Partipants tended to choose partners who matched them in physical attractiveness.

Question 36

Physical attractiveness: Matching hypothesis theory: What does the supporting evidence tell us about the matching hypothesis in terms of attraction?

Answer 36

This suggests that we tend to seek and choose partners whose attractiveness matches our own, acting as a compromise between desiring the most physically attractive partner possible and avoiding being rejected by someone who is unlike to find us physically attractive, supporting that physcial attractiveness in the form of the matching hypothesis is a valid explanation of attraction.

Question 37

Physical attractiveness: What could Berscheid et al (1971) study also be used for?

Answer 37

Undermining evidence for physical attractiveness theory

Question 38

Physical attractiveness: Matching hypothesis theory: What is undermining evidence?

Answer 38

Taylor et al. (2011) studied the activity logs of a popular online dating website, therefore measuring people’s actual date choices rather than preferences. They found that online daters sought meeting with potential partners who were more physically attractive than them.

Question 39

Physical attractiveness: Matching hypothesis theory: What does the undermining evidence tell us about the matching hypothesis in terms of attraction?

Answer 39

This suggests that the matching hypothesis may not be a valid explanation of attraction as it centeral prediction (that people will be more attracted to and so select partners who ‘match’ them in physical attractiveness) is contradicted by these findings.

Question 40

Physical attractiveness: What else could Taylor et al (2011) study be used for?

Answer 40

To support the physical attractiveness theory.

Question 41

What is a self-disclosure?

Answer 41

Revealing personal information about yourself (e.g. likes, dislikes, hopes, fears, intrests, attitudes) to another person.

Question 42

Who created social penetration theory?

Answer 42

Altman and Taylor (1973)

Question 43

What is social penetration theory?

Answer 43

The gradual process of revealing you inner self to someone else by giving away your deepest thoughts and feelings (self-disclosing).

Question 44

Self-disclosures theory: What does it mean by it is a reciprocal exchange?

Answer 44

When one person discloses something, the other partner needs to respond in a way that is rewarding (e.g. with empathy and understanding) and with their own intimate thoughts.

Question 45

Self-disclosures theory: What does reciprocity create?

Answer 45

A balance and deeper understanding of each other (deeper penetration of each other’s lives) increases feelings of intimacy and attraction.

Question 46

Self-disclosures theory: What are the two elements of self-disclosures, and how do these start and progress?

Answer 46

Breadth and depth. Both begin narrow, but as the relationship develops, self-disclosure becomes deeper, encompassing a wider range of topics. Eventually we are prepared to reveal intimate, high-risk information (e.g. painful memories, strong-held beliefs, secrets).

Question 47

Self-disclosures theory: What does breadth and depth create ?

Answer 47

Leads to the greater understanding and trust, increased feelings of intimacy and attraction.

Question 48

Self-disclosure theory: Evalaution point 1: What is supporting evidence- Sprecher and Hendrick (2004)?

Answer 48

Sprecher and Hendrick (2004) studied heterosexual dating couples and found strong correlations between several measures of satisfaction and self-disclosure (both theirs and their partners’). Therefore, men and women who used self-disclosure and believed their partner did likewise were more satisified and committed to their romantic relationship.

Question 48

Self-disclosure theory: Evaluation point 1: What did Sprecher et al. (2013) find in a later study?

Answer 48

Found that relationships were closer and more satisfying when partners take turns to self-disclose.

Question 49

Self-disclosure theory: Evaluation point 1: What did other researchers find?

Answer 49

Other researchers involved partipants writing daily diary entries. They found that self-disclosure and the perception of self-disclosure in a partner were linked to higher levels of intimacy in long-term married couples. The reverse was also true; less intimate couples self-disclosed less often.

Question 50

Self-disclosure theory: Evaluation point 1: What does the supporting evidence tell us about self-disclosures as a theory of attraction?

Answer 50

This suggests that the thoery is valid in that self-disclosures that are reciprocal do seem to lead to more satisfying relationships, potentially because it increases trust and intimacy, implying it increases attraction.

Question 51

Self-disclosure theory: Evaluation point: What is a real world application?

Answer 51

Research into self-disclosure can help people who want to improve communication in their relationships. Romantic partners sometimes use self-disclosure deliberately to increase intimacy and strengthen the bond. Haas and Stafford (1998) found that 57% of homosexual men and women said that open and honest self-disclosure was the main way they maintained and deepened their relationships. Therefore, less skilled partner, who for example, may tend to limit communication to ‘small talk’, can be taught to use self-disclosure. This could bring several benefits to the relationship in terms of deepening satisfaction and commitment.

Question 52

Self-disclosure theory: Evaluation point: What does the real-world application suggest about self-disclosures as a theory of attraction?

Answer 52

Demonstrates the value of psychological insights from self-disclosures theory in helping people who have problems in their relationships and so supports its external validity.

Question 53

Self-disclosure theory: Evaluation point: What is a weakness of the supporting evidence?

Answer 53

Much self-disclosure research is correlational. Although it is usually assumed that greater self-disclosure creates

Question 54

Self-disclosure theory: Evaluation point: What is a weakness of the supporting evidence?

Answer 54

Much self-disclosure research is correlational. Although it is usually assumed that greater self-disclosure creates more satisfaction, a correlation odes not tell us if this is a valid conclusion to draw. It is possible that being happier in a relationship makes people disclose more. Or perhaps a third variable causes both self-disclosure and satisfaction/ attraction e.g. the amount of time partners spend together.

Question 55

Self-disclosure theory: Evaluation point: What does the weakness of supporting evidence suggest about self-disclosure as a theory of attraction?

Answer 55

Suggests that from the research we can’t strongly support the internal validity of the theory that self-disclosure causes attraction as self-disclosures may not directly cause attraction/ satisfcation.

Question 56

Self-disclosure theory: Evaluation point: What is undermining evidence?

Answer 56

The prediction that increasing breath and depth of self-disclosures will lead to more satisfying and intimate relationships is not true for all cultures. In depends on the type of self-disclosure. A review by Tang et al. (2013) found that men and women in the USA (individualist) self-disclose significantly more about sexual thoughts and feeling than Chinese men and women (collectivist). Both of these levels are linked to relationship satisfcation in these cultures.

Question 57

Self-disclosure theory: Evaluation point: What does the undermining evidence suggest about self disclosures as a theory of attraction?

Answer 57

Suggests the theory is limited as it is based on findings from Western (individualist) cultures which are not necessarily generalisable to other cultures.

Question 58

What is Duck’s phase model?

Answer 58

An explantion of the process people go through when their relationship isn’t working. Once a partner becomes dissatisified, there are 4 phases in the process of the relationship breakdown. Each is marked by one or both partners reaching a ‘threshold’, a point which their perception of the relationship changes (usually for the worse)

Question 59

What are the 4 phases in Duck’s phase model?

Answer 59

Intra-psychic phase, dyadic phase, social phase, grave-dressing phase

Question 60

Duck’s phase model: What happens in the intra-psychic phase?

Answer 60

• 1 person is privately dissatisifed with the relationship
• The focus is on cognitive processes
• They weigh up the pros and cons of the relationship
• They focus on the reasons for their dissatisfaction, and their partner’s shortcomings.
  -They consider expressing their dissatisfaction to their partner
• Thuy may confine a trusted friend

Question 61

Duck’s phase model: What happens in the dyadic phase?

Answer 61

• The focus is on interpersonal processes.
• There are confrontations involving discussing reasons for dissatisfaction, and the relationship
• Each partner evaluates the costs of withdrawing

Question 62

Duck’s phase model: When does the breakup occur?

Answer 62

Between phases 2 and 3 (the dyadic phase and the social phase).

Question 63

Duck’s phase model: What happens in the social phase?

Answer 63

• The focus is on wider processes involving social networks
• The breakup becomes public
• The person seeks support from their social networks
• Social networks react differently- some are reassuring, some judge, some blame one person and some try to repair the relationship or push it to a bitter end.
• Negotiations about practicalities are made e.g. divisions of assets, childcare responsibilities
• Partners engage in activites aimed at getting over the relationship breakdown.

Question 64

Duck’s phase model: What happens in the grave-dressing phase?

Answer 64

• The focus is on the aftermath
• The relationship is buried
• Breakdown is ‘spun’ in a favourable story for public consumption
• The person creates a personal story of the breakdown
• The partners may question their decision.

Question 65

Duck’s phase model: Evaluation: What is a real-world application of the model?

Answer 65

It is useful in suggesting ways to reverse a relationship breakdown. It recognises that different repair strategies are more effective at particular points in the breakdown than others. For example, in the intra-psychic phase would suggest focussing on brooding on positive aspects of your partner, whilst in the dyadic phase would suggest improving wider social skills to improve communication.

Question 66

Duck’s phase model: Evaluation: What does the real-world application of the model suggest about the model’s ability to completely explain relationship breakdown?

Answer 66

Such insights could be used in relationship counselling, supporting the external validity.

Question 67

Duck’s phase model: Evaluation: What is a weakness of the supporting evidence?

Answer 67

Most of the research on Duck’s model involves partipants giving their experinces of the breakdown process some time after the relationship has ended (i.e. it is retrospective). This means that their recall may not be accurate or reliable; the very early stages of the breakdown may be distorted or ignored altogether, especially as they can be in the intra-psychic phase for a long time.

Question 68

Duck’s phase model: Evaluation: What does the weakness of the supporting evidence suggest about the model’s ability to completely explain relationship breakdown?

Answer 68

This means that part of the model is based on research that ignores the early part of the relationship breakdown process and so it is an incomplete description of how relationships end. Therefore, it is difficult to establish the validity of the early phases of the model as an explanation of relationship breakdown.

Question 69

Duck’s phase model: Evaluation: What is a counter point for the weakness of supporting evidence?

Answer 69

It is very difficult to study the early stages of the breakdown, as researchers’ involvement could make the situation worse or hasten the end of a relationship that might have otherwise been rescued.

Question 70

Duck’s phase model: Evaluation: What is a weakness of the model? (cultures)

Answer 70

The model and most of the research behind it are based on relationships in Western (individualist) cultures, especially the USA. Individualist relationships are generally voluntary and frequently come to an end (e.g. divorce or seperation). Relationships in collectivist cultures are more liekly to be obligatory, less easy to end, and involve the entire family (including potentially being arranged by them). The entire concept of a romantic relationship differs between cultures. It is therefore very unlikely that the process of a relationship breakdown is identical across different cultures.

Question 71

Duck’s phase model: Evaluation: What does the weakness (cultures) suggest about the model’s ability to completely explain relationship breakdown?

Answer 71

This demostrates a cultural bias in the research as the research is only conducted on Western partipants and assumed to be true of people in collectivist cultures which is unlikely to be the case. This suggest that Duck’s model may not be a valid description of relationship breakdown in collectivist cultures and so lacks external validity.

Question 72

Duck’s phase model: Evaluation: What is a weakness of the model? (why relationships breakdown)

Answer 72

Duck’s model is not very succesful in explaining why relationships breakdown. It focuses on what happens rather than looking at factors that caused the breakdown. An alternative theory called the ‘fatal attraction hypothesis’ argues that the cause of relationship breakdown are found in the attractive qualities that brought a couple together i.e. the relationship is threatened by getting too much of what you’re looking for. For example, a great sense of humour could turn into frustration that a partner can’t take anything seriously.

Question 73

Duck’s phase model: Evaluation: What does the weakness (why relationships breakdown) suggest about the model’s ability to completely explain relationship breakdown?

Answer 73

This suggests that Duck’s model may be a valid description of how a relationship breaks down but may not be a valid explanation of it, suggesting that the theory is limited.

Question 74

What is equity theory?

Answer 74

An economic theory of relationships- it still suggests that exchange of rewards and costs are importnat in relationship satisifaction, but argues equity is also important.

Question 75

What is equity?

Answer 75

The distrubtion of rewrads and costs (i.e. the profit) is fair for both partners. It emphasises the need for each partner to (individually) experince a balance between their costs and rewards. This then leads to satisfcation.

Question 76

Equity theory: What are satisfying relationships marked by?

Answer 76

Negotiations to ensure equity i.e. that rewrads are distrubted fairly, which involves making compromises.

Question 77

Equity theory: What happens over time?

Answer 77

It is thought that relationships become more equitable over time- to start with you need to invest more effort (so there would be more costs) to get the relationship going but it should become more equitable as the relationship continues.

Question 78

Equity theory: What does inequity mean?

Answer 78

One person underbenefits (and so feels anger, hostility and resentment) and one over benefits (and so feels guilty, uncomfortable and shame). Therefore both are dissatisified.

Question 79

Equity theory: When are people most dissatisified?

Answer 79

When there is a change in the level of perceived equity as time goes on.

Question 80

Equity theory: Two ways inequity can be dealt with?

Answer 80

• The ‘put upon’ (underbenefitted) partner will work hard to try to restore equity, as long as they believe it is possible to do so and the relationship is salvageable
• The underbenfitter will revise their perceptions of rewards and costs so taht the relationship feels more equitable even if its not.

Question 81

Equity theory: Evaluation: Utne et al supporting evidence?

Answer 81

Carried out a survey of 118 recently-married couples, measuring equity with two self-report scales. The participants were aged between 16 and 45 years and had been together more than 2 years before marrying. They found that couples who considered their relationship equitable were more satisfied than those who saw themselves as overbenefitting or underbenefitting.