REL 200 Flashcards
What are the primary languages of the Bible for Jews and Christians?
Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek
Which language is the predominant language of the Hebrew Bible?
Hebrew
Hebrew belongs to which language family?
Semitic language family
What are the two branches of the Semitic language family?
Eastern and western branches
To which subgroup does Hebrew belong?
Northwestern subgroup
What languages are related to Hebrew?
- Phoenician
- Ammonite
- Edomite
- Moabite
- Ugaritic
What inscriptional evidence indicates Hebrew was written as early as the tenth century BCE?
The Gezer Calendar
List some examples of inscriptional evidence for Hebrew in the Iron Age.
- Kuntillet Ajrud pithoi
- Khirbet el-Qom tomb inscriptions
- Samaria ostraca
- Siloam Tunnel inscription
Fill in the blank: Hebrew is part of the __________ subgroup.
[northwestern]
True or False: Hebrew is unrelated to Ugaritic.
False
What are the Arad letters and Lachish letters?
They are letters from the sixth century BCE and seals and seal impressions from the eighth to the sixth centuries BCE.
What is the oldest fragment of a text containing verses now in the Bible?
A silver amulet dating to the sixth century CE from a burial site outside Jerusalem, containing a version of the priestly blessing from Num 6.24-26.
How was Hebrew used after the second century CE?
Hebrew became a language of worship and scholarship, referred to as ‘the holy language’ (‘leshon haggodesh’).
What movement revived Hebrew as a spoken language in the 19th century?
The Zionist movement in Europe and Palestine.
What is the Hebrew term for the language referred to in the Hebrew Bible?
Yehudit (‘Judahite’).
What term is used in Isaiah 19.18 to refer to Hebrew?
The ‘language of Canaan’ (‘lip of Canaan’).
What script were all Hebrew inscriptions from the Iron Age written in?
The ancient Israelite script, often called Paleo-Hebrew.
How was the Paleo-Hebrew script written?
From right to left, using twenty-two consonants and without vowels.
What script replaced Paleo-Hebrew during the Persian period?
The Aramaic square script.
What significant texts are found among the Dead Sea Scrolls?
Fragmentary manuscripts of the books of the Torah and Job written in Paleo-Hebrew script.
What is the Samaritan Pentateuch?
The canonical text of the Samaritan community, copied in a Paleo-Hebrew script dated to the second century BCE.
What is Aramaic?
A northwest Semitic language closely related to Hebrew, used as the main chancellery language of the Persian Empire.
What role did Aramaic play among Jews during the Persian period?
It became the common language of governance, commerce, and day-to-day interaction.
What percentage of the Qumran scrolls are in Aramaic?
Approximately fifteen percent.
Why is Aramaic important for the study of the Hebrew Bible?
It is found in short passages in Daniel and Ezra, and major ancient translations of the Hebrew Bible were made into Aramaic.
What is the oldest known Targum?
The Targum of the book of Job from the early first century CE, discovered in Qumran Cave 11.
What language did Jesus and his disciples speak?
Aramaic.
What script was Aramaic written in?
Aramaic square script, consisting of twenty-two consonants without vowels.
When was the Aramaic square script adopted as the common script for manuscripts of the Hebrew Bible?
By the Hellenistic period.
What script is used in the Hebrew Bible with Masoretic vowels?
The Aramaic square script with the addition of the Masoretic vowels.
What language is primarily used in the Hebrew Bible?
Hebrew, particularly the Hebrew of the preexilic period.
Which books of the Hebrew Bible are composed in late Greek?
A few books, such as Esther and Ecclesiastes.
What is Greek’s origin and significance in the ancient Near East?
Greek is an Indo-European language originating in the Aegean region; it became the language of the Hellenistic empires after the conquests of Alexander the Great.
Who conquered the territories of biblical Israel?
Alexander the Great and his successors, first by the Ptolemies and then by the Seleucids.
What was the role of Greek under Hellenistic rulers?
Greek was introduced as the language of government, diplomacy, and commerce.
What is Koine Greek?
Koine Greek is the form of Greek used during the Hellenistic and Roman periods, becoming the primary spoken and written language of the Jewish diaspora.
What inscription provides evidence of Greek use in Palestine?
The ‘Temple Warning’ inscription warns non-Jews that they were not allowed beyond the Temple’s balustrade.
By the time of Jesus, who commonly spoke Greek?
Greek had become a common spoken language among educated elites and many Jews, including Jesus and his disciples.
What language did the early church primarily use?
The early church centered in Asia Minor and Greece primarily used Greek.
What happened to Greek after the Muslim conquest in the seventh century CE?
Greek was replaced by Arabic, but the Greek Orthodox Church preserves its liturgy in Byzantine Greek.
What is unique about the book of Job in the Hebrew Bible?
The book of Job is composed in a rare dialect of Hebrew.
Which sections of the Hebrew Bible are in Aramaic?
The largest Aramaic portion is Daniel 2.4-7.28, with other passages in Ezra and Jeremiah.
What indicates the change to Aramaic in the book of Daniel?
The text signals the change to Aramaic at 2.4 by including the word ‘aramit’ followed by an empty space.
What is the significance of loan words in the Hebrew Bible?
Loan words from other ancient Near Eastern languages appear, distinguishing between shared etymology and actual loans.
What are examples of loan words from Akkadian in the Hebrew Bible?
Examples include ‘saris’ (a high official) and ‘rab shageh’ (a high-ranking army officer).
What is the meaning of the loan word ‘seren’ in Hebrew?
‘Seren’ means ‘tyrant, lord’ and refers to the rulers of the five Philistine cities.
Where do Persian loan words appear in the Hebrew Bible?
Persian loan words occur in later biblical books, such as ‘dat’ (law, decree) in Esther and Ezra.
What is the significance of the word ‘pardes’ in the Hebrew Bible?
‘Pardes’ refers to a planned garden or park and appears in Neh 2.8, Song 4.13, and Eccl 2.5.
Where do Greek loan words appear in the Hebrew Bible?
Greek loan words appear sporadically in the Hebrew Bible, specifically in Gen 10.4, Ezek 27:13, and Joel 4:6.
What does Daniel 8:2 identify Alexander the Great as?
Daniel 8:2 identifies Alexander the Great as ‘the king of Yawan.’
Which Greek instruments are mentioned in Daniel 3:5-7?
Daniel 3:5-7 mentions four Greek instruments: ichara, sambyke, psalterion, and symphonia.
What type of Greek coin is mentioned in Nehemiah 7:69-71?
The drachma, a type of Greek coin, is mentioned in Nehemiah 7:69-71.
When was the Hebrew Bible translated into Greek?
The Hebrew Bible was translated into Greek beginning in the third century BCE.
What is the Septuagint?
The Septuagint (LXX) is the collective translation of the Hebrew scriptures into Greek, which became the scriptural text of the nascent Christian community.
What does the Letter of Aristeas claim about the translation of the Hebrew Bible?
According to the Letter of Aristeas, the translation was done by scribes sent to the Egyptian king by the high priest in Jerusalem.
What are the books of the Apocrypha?
The books of the Apocrypha are preserved in Greek as part of the Septuagint, although some were composed in Hebrew or Aramaic.
Which Apocryphal books were composed in Greek?
The Apocryphal books composed in Greek include the Wisdom of Solomon, 2 Maccabees, the Prayer of Manasseh, 3 Maccabees, parts of 2 Esdras known as 5 Ezra and 6 Ezra, and 4 Maccabees.
What is significant about the manuscripts of Tobit?
Manuscripts of Tobit in both Aramaic and a Hebrew translation were found in Qumran Cave 4.
What does the LXX version of Esther contain?
The LXX version of Esther is a translation of a Hebrew text and contains six large Additions (A-F).
What is the origin of the Wisdom of Jesus the son of Sirach?
The Wisdom of Jesus the son of Sirach is a translation from Hebrew into Greek, with Hebrew fragments found in Qumran Cave 2 and at Masada.
What is notable about Psalm 151?
Psalm 151 has been discovered in a Hebrew Psalms scroll from Qumran (11QPs*).
Which apocryphal books may have had Semitic originals?
Seven apocryphal books that may have had Semitic originals include Judith, Baruch, the Letter of Jeremiah, Additions to Daniel, 1 Maccabees, 1 Esdras, and chapters 3-14 of 2 Esdras.
In what language were the New Testament books written?
The New Testament books were all written in Koine Greek.
Was any New Testament book written in Latin?
No New Testament books were written in Latin, despite Latin being the language of the western Roman Empire.
What is the debate surrounding the Gospel of Matthew’s original language?
There is a tradition that Matthew was originally written in Hebrew, but most scholars agree it was composed in Greek.
What is notable about the Greek of the book of Revelation?
The book of Revelation is written in very poor Greek, containing many Semitisms.
What Aramaic words are preserved in the Gospels?
Aramaic words preserved in the Gospels include ‘Talitha cum,’ ‘Ephphatha,’ ‘Abba,’ ‘Eloi, Eloi, lema sabachthani,’ and ‘Raca.’
What does ‘Maranatha’ mean?
‘Maranatha’ means ‘Our Lord, come!’ and is preserved in 1 Cor 16:22.
What Latin loan words are found in the Greek New Testament?
Latin loan words in the Greek New Testament include ‘denarius,’ ‘centurion,’ ‘census,’ and ‘legion.’
What distinguishes Bible translation from other translations?
Bible translation is distinguished by the reverence held by adherents of Judaism and Christianity for the text and the great popularity of the Bible, leading to many translations to meet diverse needs.
What are the two basic approaches to translation?
The two basic approaches are ‘formal equivalence’ and ‘dynamic equivalence.’
Formal equivalence is word-for-word translation, while dynamic equivalence is sense-for-sense or meaning-for-meaning translation.
What is formal equivalence concerned with?
Formal equivalence places more importance on the qualities of the source language.
What does dynamic equivalence prioritize?
Dynamic equivalence is more concerned with readability in the target language.
Why is a purely word-for-word approach often unreadable?
A purely word-for-word approach would be almost unreadable due to significant differences between ancient languages and modern English.
What is an example of a word-for-word rendering of the original Greek?
An example is: ‘Father of us who in the heavens, be holy the name of you; come the kingdom of you; become the will of you as in heaven and upon earth.’
What is the trend among most Bible translations?
Most translations move towards dynamic equivalence to ensure that their representation of the original text makes sense in English.
What are some characteristics of different translation styles?
Some translations are more strict, aiming for consistency by using the same English word for a given Greek or Hebrew word, while others are freer, seeking a more colloquial style.
What complicates the translation of ancient documents like the Bible?
Cultural differences, traditional phrasing, and the intended use of the translation complicate the process.
How do cultural differences affect translation?
Cultural differences affect translation when a word’s usage in its original context presents a challenge beyond mere dictionary definitions.
What is an example of a Hebrew word with different meanings in context?
The Hebrew word ‘kelayot’ (or ‘kilyotay’) translates to ‘kidneys’ in some contexts and ‘heart’ in others, reflecting different metaphorical meanings.
How does the translation need to address the word ‘kelayot’?
The translation must differentiate the meanings of ‘kelayot’ to convey the correct sense to modern readers, as a literal rendering would be nonsensical.
What issue do translators face when translating texts for modern readers?
Translators must decide whether to add words to clarify meanings that ancient audiences would have understood without explanation.
How is ‘children of a curse’ translated in the NRSV?
‘Accursed children!’
This translation conveys the correct meaning in idiomatic English but does not indicate that the curse is from God.
What does the New English Bible translation add to clarify meaning?
‘God’s curse is on them.’
What are the three textual variants of the Greek phrase in 1.18?
- monogenês theos (only God) 2. ho monogenes theos (the only God) 3. ho monogenes huios (the only Son).
What does the Greek adjective ‘monogenes’ mean?
‘Only one of its kind’ or ‘unique.’
Which variant of ‘monogenes’ is supported by earlier manuscript evidence?
‘Only God’ is supported by earlier manuscripts and papyri.
Why is ‘only God’ considered the original reading?
It appears in earlier manuscripts and is awkward compared to ‘only Son,’ which could be an effort to smooth the text.
How do different audiences affect Bible translation?
Many translations are intended for reading aloud in worship services, requiring a more formal or elevated English style.
What significant life events often use Bible passages?
Ceremonies like marriage, important national occasions, and funerals of national leaders.
What is the nature of Bible translations?
They are dynamic mediations that balance word-for-word and meaning-for-meaning approaches.
From which text were English translations made before the sixteenth century?
Translations were made from the Latin Vulgate.
Who were the first translators of the entire Bible into English?
John Wycliffe and his associates translated the Bible from the Vulgate between 1380 and 1397.
What did John Purvey state in the ‘General Prologue’ to the second version?
It is best ‘to translate after the sentence and not only after the words.’
Who was the first to directly translate the Bible from Hebrew and Greek into English?
William Tyndale.
What did Tyndale publish in 1526?
The New Testament.
What was the first complete Bible in English?
Miles Coverdale’s translation published in 1535.
What was Matthew’s Bible?
Published in 1537, it was compiled by John Rogers using Tyndale’s translations.
Who published a revision of Matthew’s Bible in 1539?
Richard Taverner, a layman and lawyer.
What was significant about Taverner’s edition of Matthew’s Bible?
It was issued in parts, allowing people to buy one or more sections instead of the whole Bible.
Who commissioned the new revision of Matthew’s Bible in 1538?
Sir Thomas Cromwell, Secretary to King Henry VIII.
What was the name of the Bible published in London in 1539?
The Great Bible.
What was the Great Bible known for?
It was the first authorized English version, with a copy ordered to be placed in every church.
What revision of the Great Bible was published in 1568?
The Bishops’ Bible.
What was the Bishops’ Bible revised in 1572 used for?
It became the basis of the King James Version.
What happened to the printing of the English Bible under Queen Mary?
It ceased, and its use in churches was forbidden.
Where did many English Protestants seek refuge?
On the Continent.
What was the name of the English Bible revision published in 1560?
The Geneva Bible.
What was notable about the Geneva Bible?
It was the first English version to use numbered verses and was the household Bible for three-quarters of a century.
When was the English translation of the New Testament published at Rheims?
In 1582.
Who led the group of Roman Catholic scholars that translated the New Testament at Rheims?
Gregory Martin.
What was the date King James I ordained a new translation of the Bible?
February 10, 1604.
How many translators were appointed for the King James Version?
Fifty-four translators.
How was the work of the translators organized?
They worked in six companies assigned different sections of the Bible.
When was the King James Version published?
In 1611.
What is an outstanding merit of the King James Version?
The music of its cadences.
What percentage of the text of the English Bible was influenced by William Tyndale?
About sixty percent.
When did the Convocation of the Province of Canterbury appoint a committee for revision of the King James Version?
In 1870.
When was the Revised Version of the New Testament published?
In 1881.
What was published in 1901?
The American Standard Version.
What did the International Council of Religious Education acquire in 1928?
The copyright of the American Standard Version.
What was the goal of the committee appointed by the International Council of Religious Education?
To determine if further revision of the American Standard Version was necessary.
What year did the committee decide that a thorough revision was needed?
In 1937.
When was the Revised Standard Version of the New Testament published?
The Revised Standard Version of the New Testament was published in 1946.
What years were the Old Testament and the Apocrypha of the Revised Standard Version published?
The Old Testament was published in 1952, and the Apocrypha in 1957.
What did the Revised Standard Version take into account?
The Revised Standard Version took full account of new knowledge of the history, geography, religions, and cultures of Bible lands, as well as new resources for understanding ancient languages.
How many different renderings of the complete English Bible were issued between 1952 and 1990?
No fewer than twenty-six different renderings of the complete English Bible were issued.
What is the title of the collection published by the Jewish Publication Society in 1985?
The title is Tanakh, A New Translation of the Holy Scriptures According to the Traditional Hebrew Text.
What types of footnotes does the Tanakh include?
The Tanakh includes textual, translational, and explanatory footnotes.
Who is the author of the newer rendering of the Hebrew Bible?
The newer rendering is by Everett Fox.
What was the first English Bible made from the original Hebrew and Greek languages that received Roman Catholic approval?
The Revised Standard Version Catholic Edition.
What significant changes were made in the Revised Standard Version Catholic Edition?
There are sixty-seven changes in the New Testament for liturgical and theological reasons.
What is the name of the first English translation of the Bible made from the original languages by Catholic scholars?
The Jerusalem Bible.
When was The New American Bible published?
The New American Bible was published in 1970.
What is the purpose of ‘Good News for Modern Man’ issued by the American Bible Society?
It is a translation aimed at readers new to English.
What is the New Testament by Robert G. Bratcher also called?
Today’s English Version, it uses simplified syntax and a limited vocabulary.
When was the Old Testament prepared by a committee?
The Old Testament came out in 1976.
When were the Deuterocanonical/Apocryphal books published?
The Deuterocanonical/Apocryphal books were published in 1979.
What spurred the preparation of the New International Version?
The popularity of the Good News Bible spurred the preparation of another modern-speech Bible.
When was the New Testament of the New International Version published?
The New Testament was published in 1973.
When was the complete New International Version Bible published?
The complete Bible was published in 1978.
What distinguishes the New International Version from the Today’s English Version?
It is less colloquial than Today’s English Version and more literal than the New English Bible.
How many teams of translators prepared the New International Version?
Twenty teams of translators prepared the version.
When did the Today’s New International Version appear?
A revision known as Today’s New International Version appeared in 2005.
What replaced the Today’s New International Version in 2011?
A new revision of the original New International Version replaced it.
What is The Common English Bible?
A new translation in colloquial English that appeared in 2013, sponsored by a consortium of American Protestant publishers.
What is notable about the New Revised Standard Version?
It represents ecumenicity and is produced by a continuing committee with Catholic and Protestant members.
Who has been a member of the Old Testament section since 1946?
An American Jewish scholar has been a member since 1946.
What did the Division of Christian Education direct in 1974?
The Committee undertake a revision of the RSV Bible with the Apocrypha.
What were the mandates for the revision of the RSV Bible?
Changes in paragraph structure, elimination of archaisms, greater accuracy, and elimination of masculine-oriented language.
What is the guiding maxim for the New Revised Standard Version?
As literal as possible, as free as necessary.
What does the NRSV contain?
All of the books regarded as authoritative by Protestant, Roman Catholic, and Eastern Orthodox churches.
What is the main issue regarding biblical manuscripts?
No original manuscript of any biblical book has survived.
This is a common situation for ancient writings.
What is textual criticism?
Textual criticism is a methodology for assessing a text through critical comparison of its different copies.
It is used when there are multiple manuscripts that differ from each other.
Why is textual criticism necessary?
Scholars face multiple manuscripts that differ, necessitating a method to decide which wording to follow.
Differences can be trivial or important.
Is textual criticism only applicable to religious texts?
No, textual criticism can be applied to any important text lacking a definitive printed edition or author’s manuscript.
This includes issues like omitted words or incorrect indentations.
How have the methods of textual criticism developed?
The principles of textual criticism have been developed over centuries and adapted to differing circumstances.
They have been checked against newly found manuscripts.
What is the consensus among textual scholars?
There is widespread agreement among textual scholars on the methods and procedures to be used.
However, the results of textual criticism can still remain in dispute.
What is involved in establishing a critical edition of the biblical text?
It involves the collection of all the differences between manuscript copies of any text and the publication of all significant ones.
What are the forms of manuscripts used in biblical texts?
Manuscripts can be in the form of codices, scrolls, lectionaries, and citations.
What are witnesses or authorities in biblical textual criticism?
They are the sources taken together, which include manuscripts, ancient translations, and other texts.
What are variant readings?
They are the differences among the witnesses or authorities.
What are ancient translations in the context of biblical texts?
They are versions of the Bible that provide indirect evidence for the original text.
What are some reasons for variants in biblical texts?
Variants can arise from copyists misseeing or mishearing words, skipping phrases, or making deliberate changes.
Can you give an example of a simple spelling error variant?
In Eph 4.32, the variants alternate between the pronouns ‘us’ and ‘you.’
In Greek, ‘hemin’ and ‘humin’ differ by only one letter.
What is an example of a skipped phrase variant?
In Sir 30.11-12, some manuscripts omit two lines ending ‘ao in his youth.’
This may occur because the preceding line also ends with ‘in his youth.’
What might motivate a copyist to change a word or phrase?
They might change it to make it more acceptable or to conform to another biblical passage.
What is an example of a copyist trying to conform a passage?
Lk 11.2 has variants that likely attempt to conform to Mt 6.9.
What is an example of a copyist altering text for theological reasons?
At Deut 32.8, some manuscripts read ‘according to the number of the sons of God,’ while others read ‘according to the number of the sons of Israel.’
The second variant may have been introduced to avoid a polytheistic wording.
What are early translations of the Bible often called?
They are often called ‘versions.’
What are some examples of early translations?
Examples include the Septuagint (Greek), Targums (Aramaic), Peshitta (Syriac), and Vulgate (Latin).
Why are ancient versions useful to translators?
They provide insight into forms of the biblical text that may be closer to the original writings.
What is the process of textual criticism?
It involves collecting all significant variants and information to establish the best possible text.
What is a critical text?
A critical text includes a version of the Greek or Hebrew on the page along with an apparatus, usually footnotes giving variants and their source manuscripts.
What do scholars consider when determining text readings?
Scholars may rely on external evidence, such as the age of the manuscript and its geographical origin, as well as internal evidence like the length and difficulty of readings.
What is conjectural emendation?
Conjectural emendation is the process of conjecturing what the original wording might have been based on the text as it now stands.
What is the Masoretic Text?
The Masoretic Text (MT) is the basic text for the Hebrew Bible today, standardized by rabbinic scholars between the fifth and tenth centuries CE.
What two things did the Masoretic Text accomplish?
It established specific choices for the consonants of Hebrew words and pointed those letters with a system of markings indicating which vowels should be read.
Why is the distinction between consonantal and pointed Hebrew important?
The distinction is important because consonants are more likely to represent the original text than vowel sounds, which were added later.
What significant discovery was made in 1947?
The discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls, which included manuscripts of most books of the Hebrew Bible that were over a thousand years older than previously known manuscripts.
What does ‘Heb’ refer to in the NRSV notes?
‘Heb’ may refer to the consonantal (unpointed) Hebrew text.
What does ‘MT’ refer to in the NRSV notes?
‘MT’ refers to the same text with the vowel pointings included.
What do ancient copies of the Hebrew text provide insight into?
They shed light on some passages in the traditional form of the biblical text.
What is missing in the traditional text of 1 Sam 10.27-11.1?
There is no indication of the background to the conflict between King Nahash of Ammon and the men of Jabesh-Gilead.
What does a Qumran manuscript of 2 Samuel provide for 1 Sam 10.27-11.1?
It includes a continuation of 10.27 and an opening phrase for 11.1 that explains the context.
What can scholars do when no form of the Hebrew text gives a satisfactory reading?
They can turn to the ancient versions.
Why are ancient versions valuable for textual critics and translators?
They provide guidance about the state of the text and choices of wording not represented in existing manuscripts.
What is a challenge when using ancient translations?
They must be used with caution and cannot be relied upon absolutely.
What is the most prominent Greek version of the Hebrew Bible?
The Septuagint, abbreviated LXX.
When was the Septuagint translated?
It was translated beginning in the third century CE for Jews living in the Diaspora.
What are Targums?
Translations of the Hebrew Bible for Aramaic speakers, often more paraphrases than literal translations.
What is the Peshitta?
A Syriac translation of the Bible prepared for Jews, later adopted by Syriac-speaking Christians.
What are the two Latin translations used by scholars?
The Old Latin version and the Vulgate.
What is the significance of the Vulgate?
It was translated by Jerome directly from the Hebrew text, helpful in determining original readings.
What is the translational basis for most of the Apocryphal/Deuterocanonical Books?
The Septuagint text.
What manuscripts of the Septuagint have survived?
The complete text of the Septuagint is available as of 1935, with a newer critical text in process of publication through the Göttingen Septuagint project.
Which version did the NRSV use for the Additions to Daniel?
The NRSV used Theodotion’s version for the Additions to Daniel.
What text did the NRSV use for Ecclesiasticus?
For Ecclesiasticus, the NRSV used the Hebrew text instead of the Greek when it offered a better alternative.
What is the best text for 2 Esdras according to scholars?
Scholars agree that the best text for 2 Esdras is the Latin.
What types of manuscripts are included in New Testament manuscripts?
New Testament manuscripts include papyrus fragments, uncials, and minuscules.
How many New Testament manuscripts contain Gospel texts?
Approximately 2,400 manuscripts contain full or partial Gospel texts.
What is the significance of textual variants in the New Testament?
There is no phrase in the New Testament without some variant, most of which involve grammar, style, or copyists’ corrections.
What is the Byzantine text?
The Byzantine text is the Greek text preserved and copied in the Orthodox churches of the East, becoming the main version available for many centuries.
What regions are linked to the major text-types proposed by text critics?
The major text-types are linked to Alexandria in Egypt, Caesarea in the east, and Italy/Gaul and Africa in the west.
What is Codex Alexandrinus known for?
Codex Alexandrinus is considered a poor witness for the Gospels but is regarded as the best text of Revelation.
What factors do scholars consider when evaluating manuscripts?
Scholars consider the age of a manuscript among many factors when evaluating its readings.
What do most text critics not do when establishing the text?
Most text critics do not begin with a particular manuscript and correct it to establish the text.
What principles do critics use to produce a Greek text?
Critics produce a Greek text based on eclectic principles, choosing the best readings from a variety of manuscript sources.
Why do New Testament scholars not need to make conjectural emendations?
The wealth and diversity of manuscript evidence mean that New Testament scholars do not need to make conjectural emendations, unlike editing other ancient texts.
What is required for determining the best text for a passage?
Determining the best text for a particular passage requires detailed study of all preserved variants.
What are some internal principles of textual criticism?
Internal principles include consideration of readings likely to be scribal corrections or errors, fit the theological biases of an author or later editors, or could have given rise to known variants.
Which edition of the Greek text is the NRSV translation based on?
The NRSV translation is based on the Nestle-Aland 26th ed. or the equivalent United Bible Societies Greek New Testament 3rd ed.
How are textual variants indicated in the NRSV?
Textual variants in wording are indicated in the translators’ notes as ‘other ancient authorities.’
What should readers consult to understand alternative translations?
Readers should consult the text-critical notes in the Greek text or a commentary on the Greek text.
What led to the translation of the Bible into other languages?
The early Christian focus on the written word led to the translation of the Bible into other languages for converts who did not speak Greek.
What translations from the late second and third centuries are significant in text criticism?
Evidence from Old Latin, Syriac, and Coptic translations from the late second and third centuries CE figures in text criticism.
What is the significance of the Vulgate?
The Vulgate was a Latin version of the Bible produced by Jerome, which enjoyed wide circulation from the seventh century CE and was officially promulgated by Pope Sixtus V in 1590.
What was the earliest evidence for the Syriac New Testament?
The earliest evidence for the Syriac New Testament comes from The Diatessaron, a harmony of the Gospels composed by Tatian in the second century CE.
What dialects were used in Coptic translations of the New Testament?
The Sahidic dialect of Coptic emerged in the third century, and the Bohairic dialect was used in the fourth century.
What remains to be done with the manuscripts found in the twentieth century?
A number of manuscripts found in the twentieth century remain to be assembled, catalogued, and incorporated into editions of the Coptic text.
