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Reearch Methods Flashcards

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1
Q

What is deductive reasoning

A

General principle to specific conclusion
(Sun rise evrry morning, therefore it will rise on tuseday)

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2
Q

What is inductive reasoning

A

Specific scenario to general conclusion
(He left the crime scene, therefore he stole all those things)

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3
Q

Hypothetico deductive model

A

Uses inductive,
And deductive reasoning

Bc makes a direct observation on a specific scenario (inductive)
Predicts a specific conclusion for the général theory (deductive)
Then choose an experiment inorder to falsify the researchers hypothesis (deductive)

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4
Q

4 examples of primary data

A

Questionnaires
Observations
Experiments
Interviews

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5
Q

2 strengths of primary data

A

-authentic, researcher can get exact information they need (meaning it is worthwhile and contributes to the field)
-research design, improves validity and reliability (bc researchers own control) and therefore sample is more representative

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6
Q

Primary data 2 limitations

A

-practical issues, takes time, effort and expensive
-acces to target groups difficult eg, participants with PTSD may be hard to find

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7
Q

Secondary data collection 2 examples

A

Census
Government statistics

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8
Q

Secondary data advantage

A

-practical, less time effort and less expensive, eg do not need to apply for ethical approval

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9
Q

Secondary data Disdavantges (2)

A

-low validity, as data may not be accurate and of good quality (v)
-research being done can not be controlled by researcher, eg number of participants or variables researched (f)

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10
Q

What is meta analysis

A

A type of secondary data where a researcher statistically analyzes data from previsouly published research studies

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11
Q

Meta analysis strengths

A

-can examine general trends and identify gaps in research
-more likely to be generalizable than a single study bc can combine findings from different studies

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12
Q

Meta analysis limitations (3)

A

-researcher bias, may onyl inculde studies taht support their own predictions
-low temporarity validity, as including studies that are old are not sufficient because theories are always changing
-difficult to find all the studies

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13
Q

Give three points about quantitative data

A

-used to measure or compare a particular belief
-data is gathered in numerical form and statistical analysis is conducted to determine levels of significance
-objective, because numbers can not be on focused by researchers interpretations

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14
Q

Give 4 examples of where quantitative data is used

A

-surveys or atttude scales
-experiments
-case studies
-meta analysis

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15
Q

4 strengths of quantitative data

A

-comparisons can be made between groups (c)
-researcher bias less likely so more objective (o)
-reliable, easy to replicate (g)
-can track changes and trends over a long period of time (t)

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16
Q

4 limitations of quantitative data

A

-narrow range of information, identifies who what where why and when, but now why (day,1988)
-qunatophrenia, quantifies regardless of whether information is useful or not (sorokin 1956)
-low ecological validity, bc artificial environment usually used, so less accurate responses
-limited research, bc no opportunity to develop data

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17
Q

3 points about qualitative data

A

-descriptive, and looks at less defined issues such as self esteem
-provides highly detailed information eith rich descipriton
-subjective data, b researcher has to interpret it

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18
Q

3 strengths of qualitative data

A

-can identify reasons for behaviour
-provides a rich understanding for the ways people think
-opportunities for developing further research (f)

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19
Q

3 limitations of qualitative data

A

-unable to compare groups bc no groups will qualitiavely be the same
-generalizing finings is more difficult because uses small groups
-expert knwodlege of the area is required to be able to interpret such data

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20
Q

What is a theory, and give 2 criteria for it

A

Using observations of the natural world to create a carefully thought out explanation.
Should be falsifiable and tested using experiments

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21
Q

What is a hypothesis, and give 2 criteria for it

A

A precise testable statement or prediction about the outcome of an investigation.
Must include an iv, and dv
all variables should be operationalized

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22
Q

Describe the 3 types of hypothesis

A

-null hypothesis, no relationship between the variables being studied
-non directional hypothesis, does not predict the direction that the conditions will take, and simply states that there will be difference between the 2 variables
-directional hypothesis, gives a specific prediction about the direction the conditions will take

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23
Q

Difference between a theory and a hypothesis

A

Theory is already supported by data, whereas hypothesis is an asus,prion that serves as the base for research and collecting data

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24
Q

What is an aim

A

Aim identifies the general purpose of the investigation

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25
Q

What does opertaionzlaing variables mean and why do it

A

Giving variables meaning and making them measurable
-because it increases validity if the variables are defined
-and makes them easy to replicate so reliable

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26
Q

What are extraneous variables

A

Variables other than the IV, that may affect the DV,
Which can then compromise the validity of the results

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27
Q

What are confounding variables

A

Variables other than the IV, that may affect the DV
And thus compromise the validity of the results

-confounding variables interfere with the indépendant variable,
So systemtically affect the dépendant variable
Therefore make the true reason for the changes to the dependent variable uncertain

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28
Q

Give the name of 4 types of extraneous variables, and the ways to control them along with them

A

1)participant variables, (matched pair designs + random allocation )
2)situational variables (standardization)
3)order effects (counterbalancing)
4) demand characteristics(single and double blind trials)

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29
Q

Explain how to control participant variables

A

Matched pair designs:
-experimental design where pairs are matched in terms of similar characteristics
-one member is then placed in the experimental group, and the other is placed in the control group

Random allocation
-participants are randomly assigned to different groups such as the experimental or control group inorder to minimize bias, (however there is a possibility that participants with similar characteristics end up in one group by chance)

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30
Q

Explain how to control situational variables

A

Standardization
-ensure all variables are kept the same, apart from the IV
-for participants you could create a set of standardized instructions and then read them to them, so that each participant has the same set of experiences apart from the IV

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31
Q

What are situational variables

A

All aspects of the environment that could reasonably influence the results of an experiment

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32
Q

What are order effects, and give 2 examples

A

Order effects are how the positioning of tasks can affect the outcome:
Practice effects:
-when participants all complete condition one and then condition 2, so they are likely to do better in condition 2 because they have already practiced
Fatigue effects
-when participants feel tired after completing condition 2

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33
Q

Explain how to control for order effects

A

Counterbalancing:
Uses an ABBA format, half the participants complete contain A then B,
The other half complete condition B then A,
So order effects then influence each group equally
(However this method only controls for order effects and does not completely eliminate them)

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34
Q

What are demand characteristics

A

Features of the experiment,
that may indicate the aim of the study
And it’s requirements
to participants which can thus change their behvaiour.
There can be a screw you effect that can occur when participants deliberately try to disrupt the study

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35
Q

How can you control for demand characteristics

A

Single blind trials- where the participants do not know the aim of the experiment, (eg when comparing results of a teh row tunic drug with a placebo, so only researcher knows which is which)
Double blind trials- where both the participants and researchers directly involved do not know the aim of the experiment (eg when comparing results of the privatif drug and placebo, neither know which is which)

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36
Q

Give the name of the 6 sampling techniques and describe what they are

A

Random sampling- all members of the population have an equal chance of being chosen
Stratified sampling-population is divided into subcategories, and then members are selected in proportion to how they occur in the population
Volunteer sampling- sample is self selected, so participants choose to participate, eg by responding to an advert online
Opportunity sampling- sample drawn from whoever is available at the time, AND meets the required criteria eg female who speaks fluent english
Snowball sampling-participants recruit others from among their acquaintances
Systematic sampling- choosing every nth member of the target population

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37
Q

What is random sampling

A

Participants all have an equal chnace of being chosen.
Can be done by pulling names out of a hat or using random number generator on a computer

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38
Q

What is stratified sampling

A

Dividing a population into subcategories,
and then selecting members in proption to how they occur in the population

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39
Q

What is volunteer sampling

A

Sample is self selected
So participants choose tp participate
Eg choosing to respond to an advert that they see online

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40
Q

What is opportunity sampling

A

Selecting whoever is available at that time, and who meets the required criteria, (eg, female and speaks fluent english)

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41
Q

What is snowball sampling

A

Participants recruit others amongst their acquaintances

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42
Q

What is systematic sampling

A

Choosing every nth member of the target population

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43
Q

What is a population
What is a study

A

All the people who could be used in your study, so the people who the study represents

A sample is a selection of people from the population, which are actually used in the study as participants

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44
Q

What is a sample

A

A group of people who have been selected from the population to participate in the study

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45
Q

Advantage of random sampling,

A

-Provides a large sample
-Gives an unbiased representative sample of the target population , (howver if it is not representative then its suffers from sample bias

46
Q

2 Disadvantages of random sampling

A

-time consuming, because population is often too large to put everyone into a list
-not everyone may agree to participate in the study, and those who refuse may be different type of people form those who accept, therefore the sample becomes biased

47
Q

Advantage of stratified sampling

A

Samplie is often representative of the target population

48
Q

Disadvantages of stratified sampling

A

Time consuming, as sorting into sub categories and doing appropriate calculations takes time

49
Q

Volunteer sampling advantages

A

-suitable for investigations where people are unlikely to differ significantly from the whole population
-allows for a wider sample than opportunity sampling

50
Q

Disadvantages of volunteer sampling

A

-likely to be biased, because those who self select are likely to be different to those who do not respond
-unrepresentative, because the sample is restricted to those who have seen the advert for the study

51
Q

Opportunity sampling advantages

A

-participants are easy to recruit
-suitable for universal processes such as attention and memory

52
Q

Opportunity sampling Disadvantages

A

-biased, because only a particular type of people are liekly to be available at that certain time
-often gives a limited sample

53
Q

Snowball sampling advantages

A

-chain referral process is useful for accessing difficult to recruit populations
-a low cost method of sampling

54
Q

Disadvantages of snowball sampling

A

-participants may be reluctant to provide details of others, and it may be unethical for them to do so
-non random, so sample is not representative of the population and so difficult to generalize
-data collection process is slow

55
Q

Systematic sampling advantage

A

-avoids researcher bias

56
Q

Systematic sampling Disdavantge

A

May not be random and representative, eg every 4th property in a street may by chance be occupied by a young person

57
Q

What is a pilot study

A

A small scale protype of a study, carried out in advance of full research inorder to identify any possible issues

58
Q

Give a certain criteria that a pilot study must have

A

Although it uses a smaller sample than the actual research, it still must be representative of ther target population to be used in the main research

59
Q

Give 3 reasons with explanations on why you should conduct a pilot study

A

1)for feasibility(practicality)
-to discover logistical issues that may occur during the in-depth investigation that may prevent the study from actually occurring, such as time, cost and access to certain target groups
2)reduces systematic errors:
-in the experimental design, eg whether the way in which participants are allocated to different experimental groups means that they have enough time to complete the task o not
-instructions for participants, whether the instructions make sense and are clear
-the way in which instruments are measured, so allows for behvaioural categories in observational research, and questions such as in questionnaires to be checked and modified where necessary
3)allows for the estaimation of statistical errors, bc gives an idea about the range of data that will be obtained so that the research team can prepare a better design inorder to optimize data analysis

60
Q

What is experimental design, and explain the three types of it

A

Experimental design, the way that participants are allocated to experimental groups in an investigation.

-repeated measures design:
The same participants take part in each of the experimental conditions
-Independent measures design;
Different participants take part in each of the experimental conditions, where participants are randomly allocated into each group inorder to avoid researcher bias
-matched pairs design;
Different participants take part in each condition however within each condition, the participants are matched according to simialr characteristics

61
Q

Give 2 advantages of the repeated measures design

A

-same participants are used so there are no individual differences(participant variables);
Bc each individual acts as their own control, and since you are comparing the same person for condition a and for condition b, there are no extraneous participant variables, so increased validity
-fewer participants are used so saves time and money:
Bc less time involved in the recruitment process and less money spent on payment

62
Q

Give 2 Disadvantages of the repeated measures design

A

Order effects such as practice and fatigue can occur
-because the person may improve on the second task or may feel tired on it, which can thus alter their performance
Materials need to be carefully designed for internal validity
-bc they need to be designed similar in terms of difficulty and length, so that’s when conducting a before and after comparison, the true reason for the change in the dependant variable can be known.

63
Q

Give 2 advantges of the indépendant measures design

A

-no order effects such a s practice effect and fatigue effect
Bc the participants only take part in one condition, therefore the effect of the previous conditions can not effect their results in other conditions
-sometimes the only option
Bc when investigating naturally occurring indépendant variables such as gender, a person can not be both male and female

64
Q

2 Disdavantges of the independent measures design

A

Risk of participant variables
-bc there may be individual differences between the participants, so its not appropriate to compare the conditions as the indépendant variable is being interfered with
-large sample can be costly and time consuming
Bc new participantes are required for each condition, therefore it takes time to recruit new members and it requires money for payment

65
Q

2 advantages of the matched pairs design

A

-no order effects
Bc indivuals do not repeat conditions therefore the effect of the previous conditions can not effect the results of the next
-reduces participant variables
Bc in each pair, participants act as controls four each other

66
Q

Give 3 points about laboratory experiments

A

-done in an artificial environment
-environment is controlled so that every participant expericnes the same environment
-the indépendant variable is manipulated

67
Q

Give 3 criteria for lab experiments

A

-must be a manipulation of the IV
-must be random allocation of participants to conditions
-must be standardized so that it can be repeated

68
Q

Give 3 strengths of lab experiments

A

-high internal validity;
Bc the experiment controls for extraneous variables where this high degree of control allows the experiment to establish that it is the IV, that is causing a change on the DV
-replicable
Standardization and precise operationalization of the variables allows the experiment to be replicated, therefor making it reliable
-objective
Because of the fact that lab experiments are precisely measured, subjective bias is reduced if the findings need to be interpreted, where objectivity also increases the accuracy of the findings

69
Q

Give 3 limitaions of lab experiments

A

-low external validity
Because the findings are as a result of standardization and precise operationalization of variables, and so are less generalizable to real life
-low mundane realism and low ecological validity
Because an artificial environment is used whee behaviour is likely to be very different to in a real life setting, so low ecological validity
-demand characteristics are likely to occur
Because the ways that the variables are operationalized, this may hint towards the aims of the study, so participants are liekly to conform to the researchers expectations and not act how they normally would act

70
Q

Give 3 points about field experiments

A

-conducted in a natural environment
-reduced contorl over variables
-independent variable is manipulated

71
Q

Give a study done that included field experiments

A

Azar et al, 2013
Investigated whether customers would return extra change given at a restaurant, so they used a real restaurant environment
Found that 2/3 did not return the change
And that when given higher amounts, customers were more likely to return the Change

72
Q

Give 3 strengths of field experiments

A

-high internal validity, but less than in lab experiments
Because the indépendant variable is being directly manipulated, to produce an effect on the dev, howver because of confounding variables that may have been established, a cause and effect may not have actually been established
-High mundane realism and ecological validity
Because it occurs in a natural environment so it is likely to be applicable to real life
Reduced demand characteristics
-reduced demand characteristics
Bc it is in a natural experiment, it is less clear that an experiment is being conducted so participants are less likely to conform to researchers expectations

73
Q

Give 5 limitations of field experiments

A

-lower control, so therefore caution should be applied to cause and effect
Bc done in a natural environment so environmental factors can often occur that can influence the results which the researcher has less control over
-ethical implications
participants are often unaware that they are part of the study so there is concern about, a lack of informed consent, deception, and there is often a compromised right to withdraw
-more difficult to analyze
Bc often uses observation which uses qualitiave data, and also uses different forms of dasta which can be difficult to integrate and draw conclusions from
-low internal reliability
Because natural environment means that it is difficult to control all the variables, therefore difficult to see if you are measuring the same thing each time
-low external reliability
Because it is difficult to replicate

74
Q

Give 3 points about quasi experiments

A

Conducted ina natural environment
Environment is still controlled
Indépendant variable is naturally occurring such as gender or mental illness, and case not be manipulated because it would be unethical

75
Q

Give an example of a study that used quasi experiments

A

Lange et al, (2014)
Investigated whether the differences between 2 naturally occurring variables, gender and weight, had an effect on a child’s inattenetivnesas
Found that obese males were more inattentive and that the greater the weight, the greater the inattentives

76
Q

Give 3 strengths of quasi experiments

A

-the only way to investigate natural IVs
Bc it would be unethical to manpulate these ivs, such as inducing a mental illness upon someone
-controls the environment so reduces extraneous variables
So makes it more liekly that it is the differences in the IV that have an effect on the DV
-reliable to an extent
Bc standardized procedures can allow for some degree of replicability

77
Q

5 limitations of quasi experiments

A

-only forms an association, not a cause and effect
Bc since the iv is not being directly manipulated, you can not say that the iv directly causes a change on the dev, so a cause and effect relationship can not be established. You can therefore only say that there is an association between the two variables
-groups are not randomly assigned
No random sampling can occur, because the groups have already been naturally selected. So when you are using groups that are non equivalent so have not been equally and randomly distributed, this means that you are unsure whether it is the differences in behavior that have caused a chnage in tbhe dev or other factors
-ignores other variables that my affect the DV
Such as genetics
-demand characteristics and investigator effects can lead participants to behave unaturally
-issues with reliability
Bc the variables are not entirely in the experimenters contorl, so there are issues with replication

78
Q

What is reliability

A

A measure of consistency, so results are reliable of they are the same each time that they are carried out

79
Q

What is internal reliability and what is external reliability

A

Internal, is the extent to which a measure is consistent within itself
(So the test is measuring what you actually want it measure, like for eg if u give students a test to measure their understanding, high reliability would tell u that the test measures understanding well, but low internal reliabilty wold suggest that it is actually measuring something else like memory)

External; is the extent to which a measure varies form one use to the other
(So if the tool is consistent across many other context)
Eg a test for depression should be able to measure it across all socio economic backgrounds

80
Q

Give and explain a way to measure internal reliability

A

Split half method
Where data is randomly split in half and if the results taken from each half are similar, then it is internally reliable

81
Q

Give 2 ways to measure external reliability and explain what these are

A

Test-retest, the degree to which the test results are consistent over time, where the same participants take the same test
Inter rater reliability, the extent to which 2 observers are measuring behavior in the same way

82
Q

Explain the test-retest method, and things that must be taken into consideration for it to occur

A

A way to measure external reliability
-the same participants are presented with the same questionnaire on two separate occasions
-and then it is tested whether there is a positive correlation between the two, which is called the coefficient of stability and is tested using pearls s correlation, so 0.8-0.9 shows good reliability

Time is a confounding variable that may effect the results
-if there is too little time, then it is liekly that partcoants will be able to recall their réponses in the first test, so rather than testing reliability it is testing memory
-if there is too much time, the participants may have changed, eg they may have initially been depressed but then a year or two later are no longer depressed

Other examples of condoning variables that may affect the study are environmental factors such as lighting or the time of day

83
Q

Explain the inter rater reliability method and give an example of a study for it

A

-different psychologists bserve the same situation separately
-and then their observations are correlated using the COHENS KAPPA correlation, where a value above 0.8 shows near perfect agreement

Eg
Ainsworth et al. (1978)
Wanted to measure the quality of attachement
So used highly operationalized behavioral categories to observe instances of separation anxiety and stranger anxiety etc
Found a kappa value above 0.9, therefore there was high agreement between observers and so the findings are reliable

84
Q

Give a way that internal validity can be improved in (all types of) expeirments

A

Using a double blind method, which is where both the participant and the researcher directly taking part in the research do not know about the aims of the experiment

85
Q

How can you establish the reliability of a lab experiment

A

Use the test retest method,
Which is where you give same group of participants a test
Then give them same test after A period of time
Ad then see if there is positive correlation between the 2

86
Q

What are investigator effects and how can you control for them

A

When a researcher consciously or unconsciously acts in a way to support the results of their prediction

Can be controlled with double blind trails, where both rearscher and participant do not know the aims of the study.
And can be used in for example when comparing effects of therapeutic drugs with placebo

87
Q

Which 2 methods of observation include recording videos of observations

A

-non participant observation(eg in Hughes et al study of low income ethnic minorities and international at meal time)
-unstructured observation (bc this provides objective data, and without it important observations could be missed)

88
Q

field experiments

A
89
Q

Advantges of structured observation

A

-easy to analyze and generalize data
-objective because of behavioral categories (dont need to interpret behaviour)

90
Q

Disadvantges of structured observation

A

—limited insight and understanding
-unexpected behavior may be discarded

91
Q

Advantages of unstructured observations

A

-more detail and understanding
-good for exploratory research

92
Q

What is an unstructured observtaion and what is a characteristic of it

A

Observation where where no specfic behaviours are expected but researcher will note down what they think is relèvent
Often uses recording devices in order to not miss any behaviours

93
Q

Unstructured observations Disadvantages

A

-only salient behaviour is recorded down
-difficult to analyze and generalize
-investigator effects so low internal validity

94
Q

Participant observation advantages

A

-more detail and understanding

95
Q

Participant observation Disadvantages

A

-can lose objectivity
-time consuming to get acces to target groups

96
Q

Non participant observation advantages

A

-more objective
-recording devices increase inter rater reliability

97
Q

Non participant observation disadvantges

A

-less detail and insight
-not everyone agrees to take part

98
Q

Covert observation advantages

A

-good for difficult to access groups
-less observer effect

99
Q

Covert observation disadvantages

A

-unethical
-practical issues, with gaining acces to group and their trust

100
Q

Overt observation advantges

A

-can gain participants trust
-less partial issues, eg with gaining the groups trust

101
Q

Overt observation disadvantages

A

—not all groups agree to be observed, or dangerous to ask eg criminal
-observer effect

102
Q

Overt observation advantages

A

-can gain more trust, so more valid data
-more practical, eg dont have to have experience to fit in

103
Q

What is a controlled observation

A

Can be in a natural environment or artificial

If in a natural environment, environment can still be manipulated with precisely determined events

104
Q

Controlled observation advantages

A

-can control variables, so high internal validity
-easily replicable so generalizable

105
Q

Controlled observation disadvantages

A

-low ecological validity
-low external validity

106
Q

Naturalistic observation advantages

A

-high ecological validity
-high mundane realism
-ethical, good for netaurtally occuring situations where it would be unethical to produce

107
Q

Naturalistic observation disadvantages

A

-social desirability bias
-less replicate so less inter rater reliability

108
Q

Explain fully what participant variables are

A

Confounding variables due to individual differences
Can be temporary like hunger or permanent like culture
Often occur in indépendant measures design, but can be controlled thru eg random allocation

109
Q

Difference between measure of central tendency and measure of dispersion

A

Measure of central tendency gives the average of the data, so the typical score.
But measure of dispersion gives the variation within a data set

110
Q

What is the repeated measures design

A

Where same participants are in the same levels of the indépendant variable

111
Q

Difference between a directional hypothesis in correlations and then in experiments

A

Directional hypothesis in correlations predicts whether the correlation will be positive or negative.
Directional hypothesis in experiments predicts which level of the IV will be better

alevel psych (13 decks)

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