Reasoning Flashcards
What is inductive and deductive reasoning?
Inductive: forming generalisations from examples (probable but not certain) (eg 2-4-6 task)
Deductive: Reasoning to a conclusion from set of statements where conclusion follows from assumption that the statements are true
What is Poppers confirmation and falsification theory?
experimental tests can’t confirm hypotheses but can disconfirm or falsify them
Confirmation bias: (ie 2-4-6 task) people try to conform to fit own hypothesis –> proper hypothesis testing is needed
What is conditional reasoning? And what must be met?
In deductive reasoning: Basically reasoning with if ie if you are happy you are smiling
- premises must be accepted
- Logical rules must be followed
- -> Modus ponens: conclusions that follow are valid (however not necessarily true ie if it’s sunny, Joe is happy –> It’s sunny. Joe must be happy)
- -> Modus tollens: ie if it’s sunny, Joe is happy. Joe is sad. Therefore it can’t be sunny (valid inference)
What is meant by affirmation of the consequence (in conditional reasoning)
Ie if it’s sunny, Joe is happy. Joe is happy, therefore it must be sunny –> invalid reference (other factors may play in)
What is meant by denial of the antecedent?
ie if it’s sunny, Joe is happy –> It isn’t sunny, Joe must be sad
–> invalid reference (rule does not preclude that there is not another reason than A being true for B to be true)
What can influence conditional reasoning?
- Context: Additional arguments leads to reduction in performance
- Availability of counterexamples: many counterexamples –> less willing to conditional inferences
- Higher working memory capacity –> better reasoning
—> performance on reasoning depends on individual differences
What is Wason selection task?
ie If there is a vowel on one side there will be even number on other - which cards should be turned over?
What is the maching bias?
Choosing items named in the rule when choosing whether they are relevant to testing or not
Which factors may affect selection tasks?
- may assume that rule is true (authority figure)
- may not realise that they don’t get feedback until all choices are made
- improving these factors improves performance
Describe the social contract theory
What if MUST is used (ie you must buy ticket to ride the train) - detonic rules
- because we have evolved to register cheating
What is syllogistic reasoning?
Syllogism = 2 statements followed by conclusion (ie all A are B. All B are C. Therefore all A are C)
belief bias: people are swayed content if stated more concretely (ie all lectures are lovely). Reasoning validation can therefore be difficult.
Obs All A are B does not mean all B are A.
What is the mental model of deductive reasoning?
= Representation of possible states (ie a coin toss can be heads or tails although it can actually be other things)
- you look for ways of changing model that may falsify rule (ie counterexamples)
- If several mental models –> more difficult problem –> requires more working memory
What is the dual-system theories of deductive reasoning?
System 1: Unconscious independent of intelligence
System 2: Conscious, rule-based, limited capacity, linked to general intelligence
Heuristic process in system 1: make use of task features and background knowledge
Analytic process in system 2: If system 1 is unsuccessful (if there is sufficient time, intelligence and instructions)
Which brain systems are involved in reasoning?
- Prefrontal cortex
- Brocca’s (especially deductive -phonology?)
- Dorsolateral prefrontal gyrus (inductive)
What is said about informal reasoning?
- Formal reasoning as in tests may not represent real life tasks
- -> informal tasks may involve other processes –> CONTENT of arguments crucial in everyday tasks
- probalistic nature of everyday reasoning (options are evaluated rather than logical certainty)
- Positive evidence has more salience than negative
