Problem solving, judgement and decisions making Flashcards
Explain problem solving
= Recognise that there is a problem -_> series of steps –> solution
- Problem occurs when someone lacks appropriate knowledge to solve it automatically
- Controlled and automatic processes are used
- problems can be more or less defined
What are the 4 types of problems?
Well-defined: Initial state, goals and methods are clear
ill-defined problems: definition of problem imprecise and goals may be unclear
knowledge-rich: can only be solved through use of prior knowledge
knowledge-learn(/poor): Not much prior knowledge needed, most information in problem statement
What is the history to problem solving?
Gestalt psychology: Cats in cage - trial-and-error-learning- same for humans? –> no productive (novel more complex approach) vs reproductive thinking (reuse of previously learnt info)
Köhler: insight: ‘AHA!’: sudden restructering of problem (apes and tools) - pendulum trial
What’s the neural evidence for insight?
Insight seems to be involved in some cases, but not others - different brian activity:
when insight was experiences right hemisphere (anterior superior temporal gyrus) was activated, it wasn’t in non-insight
- insight solutions may work as parallel functions whereas conscious problem solving is serial (1 at the time) –> insight being quicker and feels spontaneous
What is the representational change theory? (Ohlsson)
- The cognitive representation of the problem –> cue to LT memory
- Block occurs when problem is represented insufficiently for retrieval
- Block is broken when problem representation is changed –> insight
- Changing by: Addition of new info / Relaxation (–> inhibitions of what is regarded possible removed) / re-encoding (re-interpretation)
What are the implications of the representational change theory?
- Not often possible to predict the change
- Single-factor theory –> relaxation crucial (found that multiple factors involved and that hints to produce relaxation only had a small effect)
- Not taking individual differences into account (ie IQ)
What is incubation?
= ignoring problem (‘sleeping on it’) allows for unconscious processes to solve the problem. Longitudinal Findings:
1) Small but significant incubation effect
2) Stronger effect in creative problems with multiple solutions (compared to verbal with 1)
3) Effect greater when long preparation time prior to incubation
- Incubation allows misleading info to be forgotten? (Simon)
What is the GPS system (general problem solver)?
= Computer simulation of human problem solving - serial processing 3 stages:
1) initial stage
2) Goal state
3) intermediate states
–> solution achieved by changing current state to one closer to end state by
heuristics (rule of thumbs) or algorithms (complex)
- Important heuristic: means-to-end = keep setting subgoals closer to end goal
What is transfer?
How past experience affects problem solving:
- Positive transfer: previous experience helpful for new problem
- Negative transfer: previous experience disruptive to new problem (ie einstellung (mental set) = using familiar strategy to solve a problem even when it not appropriate)
- Far transfer: positive transfer to dissimilar context
- Near transfer: positive transfer to similar context
Ease of transfer depends on: task similarity, context similarity, time interval
How is expertise typically examined and what is found?
Complex problems (ie chess /medical diagnosis) –> experts do solve problems differently to novices
Expertise requires: Deliberate practice, informative feedback, opportunity to correct errors (+ motivational factor)
What is the background to judgement?
Evaluating situations and events: success judged by accuracy.
Bayesian approach: mathematical: relative probabilities of hypotheses A and B in light of new data = (prior odds of each hypo being correct before data collected) x (likelihood ratio based on data)
What is neglecting base rate?
= Failure to take into account what is already known (ie describtion of a man who shows no interest in politics etc, told he is taken out of a sample size of 100 where 70 were lawyers and 30 engineers –> still label him as engineer)
What is representative heuristic?
= tendency to ignore other information in favour of assumption that typical members of category will be encountered more frequently
–> neglect of base rate info
What is conjunction fallacy?
= mistaken belief that the conjunction of 2 events (A and B) is more likely than one of them on their own (A or B).
- ie Linda feminist and bank teller or feminist or bank teller –> feminist and bank teller (because feminist would also include all bank tellers so this is incorrect)
What is recognition heuristic?
= The item you know best (out of 2) rates higher on criterion (ie which town is the most popular)
–> fast and frugal approach (not necessarily always right but often is!)
What are the casual models?
Laboratory tasks often don’t allow use of knowledge of cause and effect.
(think mammogram example)
Explain the dual-process approach
We use heuristic approaches if possible (avoid effort). Sometimes however, we do use complex cognitive processes instead –> dual-process approach: probability judgements depend on processing within 2 systems:
1) fast, intuitive, automatic, unconscious, emotional, hard to control (ie heuristics)
2) slower, controlled, flexible
Intuitive answers from system 1 monitered by system 2 which can modify them
What is the expected utility in decision making?
Expected utility = probability of outcome x utility of outcome
factors affecting: loss aversion (low self-esteem –> greater loss aversion): ie 100% change of loosing £800 or 85% change of loosing £1000 and 15% change of loosing nothing
What is the prospect theory?
Individuals identify reference point and usually averse to loss until possible gain is around twice as high (–>loss aversion)
What other effects on decision making are there?
sunk-cost effect: tendency to continue with bad strategy to problem (eg go on holiday even though you’re ill)
framing effect: decision can be influenced by the way problem is described and mathematical irrelevant figures
Emotional biases:
- impact bias: overestimation of intensity and duration of negative emotional effect or loss –> bigger framing effect
- Omission bias: It is preferred to do nothing rather than risk the regret that their action caused harm
What is the bounded rationality approach? (Simon)
Complex decision making require many factors to be taken into account.
- optimisation: selection of best choice
- bounded rationality: People as rational as their processing limitations permit
