Problem solving, judgement and decisions making

Question 1

Explain problem solving

Answer 1

= Recognise that there is a problem -_> series of steps –> solution

• Problem occurs when someone lacks appropriate knowledge to solve it automatically
• Controlled and automatic processes are used
• problems can be more or less defined

Question 2

What are the 4 types of problems?

Answer 2

Well-defined: Initial state, goals and methods are clear

ill-defined problems: definition of problem imprecise and goals may be unclear

knowledge-rich: can only be solved through use of prior knowledge

knowledge-learn(/poor): Not much prior knowledge needed, most information in problem statement

Question 3

What is the history to problem solving?

Answer 3

Gestalt psychology: Cats in cage - trial-and-error-learning- same for humans? –> no productive (novel more complex approach) vs reproductive thinking (reuse of previously learnt info)

Köhler: insight: ‘AHA!’: sudden restructering of problem (apes and tools) - pendulum trial

Question 4

What’s the neural evidence for insight?

Answer 4

Insight seems to be involved in some cases, but not others - different brian activity:

when insight was experiences right hemisphere (anterior superior temporal gyrus) was activated, it wasn’t in non-insight

• insight solutions may work as parallel functions whereas conscious problem solving is serial (1 at the time) –> insight being quicker and feels spontaneous

Question 5

What is the representational change theory? (Ohlsson)

Answer 5

• The cognitive representation of the problem –> cue to LT memory
• Block occurs when problem is represented insufficiently for retrieval
• Block is broken when problem representation is changed –> insight
• Changing by: Addition of new info / Relaxation (–> inhibitions of what is regarded possible removed) / re-encoding (re-interpretation)

Question 6

What are the implications of the representational change theory?

Answer 6

• Not often possible to predict the change
• Single-factor theory –> relaxation crucial (found that multiple factors involved and that hints to produce relaxation only had a small effect)
• Not taking individual differences into account (ie IQ)

Question 7

What is incubation?

Answer 7

= ignoring problem (‘sleeping on it’) allows for unconscious processes to solve the problem. Longitudinal Findings:

1) Small but significant incubation effect
2) Stronger effect in creative problems with multiple solutions (compared to verbal with 1)
3) Effect greater when long preparation time prior to incubation

• Incubation allows misleading info to be forgotten? (Simon)

Question 8

What is the GPS system (general problem solver)?

Answer 8

= Computer simulation of human problem solving - serial processing 3 stages:

1) initial stage
2) Goal state
3) intermediate states

–> solution achieved by changing current state to one closer to end state by
heuristics (rule of thumbs) or algorithms (complex)

• Important heuristic: means-to-end = keep setting subgoals closer to end goal

Question 9

What is transfer?

Answer 9

How past experience affects problem solving:

• Positive transfer: previous experience helpful for new problem
• Negative transfer: previous experience disruptive to new problem (ie einstellung (mental set) = using familiar strategy to solve a problem even when it not appropriate)
• Far transfer: positive transfer to dissimilar context
• Near transfer: positive transfer to similar context

Ease of transfer depends on: task similarity, context similarity, time interval

Question 10

How is expertise typically examined and what is found?

Answer 10

Complex problems (ie chess /medical diagnosis) –> experts do solve problems differently to novices

Expertise requires: Deliberate practice, informative feedback, opportunity to correct errors (+ motivational factor)

Question 11

What is the background to judgement?

Answer 11

Evaluating situations and events: success judged by accuracy.

Bayesian approach: mathematical: relative probabilities of hypotheses A and B in light of new data = (prior odds of each hypo being correct before data collected) x (likelihood ratio based on data)

Question 12

What is neglecting base rate?

Answer 12

= Failure to take into account what is already known (ie describtion of a man who shows no interest in politics etc, told he is taken out of a sample size of 100 where 70 were lawyers and 30 engineers –> still label him as engineer)

Question 13

What is representative heuristic?

Answer 13

= tendency to ignore other information in favour of assumption that typical members of category will be encountered more frequently

–> neglect of base rate info

Question 14

What is conjunction fallacy?

Answer 14

= mistaken belief that the conjunction of 2 events (A and B) is more likely than one of them on their own (A or B).

• ie Linda feminist and bank teller or feminist or bank teller –> feminist and bank teller (because feminist would also include all bank tellers so this is incorrect)

Question 15

What is recognition heuristic?

Answer 15

= The item you know best (out of 2) rates higher on criterion (ie which town is the most popular)

–> fast and frugal approach (not necessarily always right but often is!)

Question 16

What are the casual models?

Answer 16

Laboratory tasks often don’t allow use of knowledge of cause and effect.
(think mammogram example)

Question 17

Explain the dual-process approach

Answer 17

We use heuristic approaches if possible (avoid effort). Sometimes however, we do use complex cognitive processes instead –> dual-process approach: probability judgements depend on processing within 2 systems:

1) fast, intuitive, automatic, unconscious, emotional, hard to control (ie heuristics)
2) slower, controlled, flexible

Intuitive answers from system 1 monitered by system 2 which can modify them

Question 18

What is the expected utility in decision making?

Answer 18

Expected utility = probability of outcome x utility of outcome

factors affecting: loss aversion (low self-esteem –> greater loss aversion): ie 100% change of loosing £800 or 85% change of loosing £1000 and 15% change of loosing nothing

Question 19

What is the prospect theory?

Answer 19

Individuals identify reference point and usually averse to loss until possible gain is around twice as high (–>loss aversion)

Question 20

What other effects on decision making are there?

Answer 20

sunk-cost effect: tendency to continue with bad strategy to problem (eg go on holiday even though you’re ill)

framing effect: decision can be influenced by the way problem is described and mathematical irrelevant figures

Emotional biases:

• impact bias: overestimation of intensity and duration of negative emotional effect or loss –> bigger framing effect
• Omission bias: It is preferred to do nothing rather than risk the regret that their action caused harm

Question 21

What is the bounded rationality approach? (Simon)

Answer 21

Complex decision making require many factors to be taken into account.

• optimisation: selection of best choice
• bounded rationality: People as rational as their processing limitations permit