Reasoning

Question 1

reasoning

Answer 1

the cognitive process of deriving new information from old information

Question 2

deductive reasoning

Answer 2

general –> specific
starts with general premises and draws specific conclusions, like “All humans are mortal, and John is a human, so John must be mortal.”
- logically true, but also realistically true

Question 3

Inductive reasoning

Answer 3

specific –> general
infers general principles from specific observations, such as “Every swan we’ve seen is white, so we conclude that all swans are white.”
- logically true, but may not realistically be true

Question 4

abductive reasoning

Answer 4

suggests the most plausible explanation for observed phenomena, like “The grass is wet, so it might have rained.”

Question 5

premises

Answer 5

statements assumed to be true, from which conclusions are drawn

Question 6

valid

Answer 6

arguments in which the conclusion must be true if the premises are true

Question 7

Two types of deductive reasoning

Answer 7

propositional and syllogistic reasoning

Question 8

propositional reasoning

Answer 8

reasoning about statements connected by logical relations such as “and”, “or”, “not”, “if”
evaluates logical relationships between statements, such as “If it’s raining, then the ground is wet.”

Question 9

syllogistic reasoning

Answer 9

reasoning about groups/sets using statements connected by logical relations of “some”, “none”, “all”, and “some not”
involves deducing conclusions from two premises, like “All mammals are warm-blooded, and whales are mammals, so whales are warm-blooded.”

Question 10

inference rules

Answer 10

guide logical deductions from premises to conclusions. Valid deductive reasoning patterns used to draw conclusions from premises in a logical and consistent manner.
Three types: modus ponens, modus tollens and hypothetical syllogism

Question 11

modus ponens

Answer 11

Affirming the antecedent; if A implies B, and A is true, then B must be true.
Example: If it is raining (A), then the ground is wet (B). It is raining (A is true). Therefore, the ground is wet (B is true).

Question 12

modus tollens

Answer 12

Denying the consequent; if A implies B, and B is false, then A must be false.
Example: If it is raining (A), then the ground is wet (B). The ground is not wet (B is false). Therefore, it is not raining (A is false).

Question 13

hypothetical syllogism

Answer 13

is like connecting two “if-then” statements to reach a conclusion
Example: If it is raining (A), then the ground is wet (B). If the ground is wet (B), then people might slip (C). Therefore, if it is raining (A), then people might slip (C).

Question 14

double negation

Answer 14

Asserting a positive statement by denying its negation.
“It is not untrue that John is happy” implies “John is happy.”

Question 15

Two main logical fallacies

Answer 15

1. Affirming the consequent
2. Denying the antecedent
   They represent errors in reasoning rather than valid forms of logical inference.

Question 16

affirming the consequent

Answer 16

Assuming that because something happens (the consequent), something else must have happened before it (the antecedent).
For example, “If it’s raining (A), the ground gets wet (B). The ground is wet (B), so it must have rained. (A)”

Question 17

denying the antecedent

Answer 17

Assuming that because something didn’t happen (the antecedent), something else couldn’t have happened afterward (the consequent).
For example, “If it’s raining (A), the ground gets wet (B). It’s not raining (A is false), so the ground must not be wet. (B is false)”

Question 18

mental models approach

Answer 18

the view that people tackle logical reasoning problems by forming mental representations of possible states of the world and draw inferences from those representations

Question 19

categorical syllogisms

Answer 19

simple deductions using categories. They involve three parts:
1. general statement (major premise)
2. specific statement (minor premise)
3. conclusion.
For example, “All humans are mortal (major premise), Socrates is a human (minor premise), so Socrates is mortal (conclusion).”

Question 20

atmosphere effect

Answer 20

a tendency to draw conclusions in syllogisms that are over influenced by the form of the premises rather than the logic of the argument

Question 21

mental model approaches to syllogisms

Answer 21

people create mental pictures to understand logical statements. They build these mental models based on the information given and check if they fit the conclusion. By simplifying and adjusting these mental images, individuals figure out whether the conclusion makes sense. It’s about how our minds naturally visualize and reason through logic puzzles.

Question 22

belief bias

Answer 22

when our existing beliefs influence how we evaluate arguments, sometimes leading us to accept invalid reasoning because it aligns with what we already believe

Question 23

dual system theory by Kahneman & Tversky

Answer 23

suggests that human thinking operates through two distinct systems: System 1 and System 2.
System 1: intuitive and automatic
System 2: analytical and slower
Helps explain how humans process information and make decisions, highlighting the interplay between intuitive and analytical thinking processes.

Question 24

hypothetico-deductive reasoning

Answer 24

a form of inductive reasoning which is a problem-solving approach where hypotheses are formed and then tested through deductive reasoning to confirm or reject them.

Question 25

the four-card selection task by Wason

Answer 25

a cognitive psychology experiment where participants were presented with four cards, each with a number on one side and a letter on the other. They were told that each card represented a person, with a rule that if a card had a vowel on one side, then it must have an even number on the other side. Participants had to decide which cards they needed to flip over to confirm or reject this rule.

The significance of this experiment lies in its demonstration of the challenges people face in logical reasoning. Despite the seemingly straightforward nature of the task, most participants struggled to correctly identify the necessary cards to confirm the rule. This highlighted the tendency for individuals to exhibit confirmation bias.

Question 26

confirmation bias

Answer 26

focusing on seeking evidence that supports their preconceived notions rather than considering all possibilities objectively.

Question 27

matching bias

Answer 27

a cognitive bias where individuals make decisions based on similarity or matching between features rather than considering other relevant factors.

Question 28

Social contract theory by Thomas Hobbes

Answer 28

suggests that people agree to give up certain freedoms and submit to the authority of a government in exchange for protection and social order. It relates to reasoning by highlighting the rational choice individuals make to prioritize security over absolute freedom, recognizing that cooperation and obedience to authority can lead to a more stable society.