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cognitive research > Reading & Speech Perception > Flashcards

Reading & Speech Perception Flashcards

week 9

1
Q

how can we define language?

A

A shared symbolic system for communication.

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2
Q

what are linguistics?

A

○ The discipline that takes language as its topic.
○ The focus is language (primary topic)

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3
Q

what are psycholinguistics?

A

○ The study of language as it is used and learned by people.
○ How we study the language- how it is used and learned by people

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4
Q

what are the crucial differences in how we interpret reading and speech perception?

A

Reading:
* Words seen as a whole: all content is delivered as a whole
* Low ambiguity: straight forward to understand
* Rarely distracted by other stimuli: easier to focus on reading
* Low cognitive demands: dependent on reading ability
* Punctuation main cue: the way we emphasise words

Speech Perception
* Words spread-out over time: cant predict what they are going to say, interpreting/processing word-for-word
* High ambiguity: difficult for us to understand sometimes
* Adverse conditions in everyday life: loud sounds can make it difficult
* High cognitive demands: think deeply listening to someone talk- language ability/tone
* Prosodic cues: how someone uses their voice to emphasise words- change in tone.

both involve different brain areas (evident from damage)

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5
Q

what are the different process to reading (Balota et al, 1999)?

A

○ Orthography (word spelling)- Grapheme= letter
○ Phonology (word sound)- Phoneme= sounds that make up a word (smallest unit of a sound)
○ Semantics (word meaning)
○ Syntax and grammar- how sentence is structured
○ Higher-level discourse integration

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6
Q

what is the naming task?

A

say printed word out loud as rapidly as possible
* Link orthography (spelling) and phonology (sound)
* See a printed word and you say it out loud as quickly as you can.
○ Measure of reaction time as well.

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7
Q

what is the lexical descision task?

A

Decide rapidly whether string of letters forms a word
* Link orthography (spelling) and semantics (meaning)
* Similar to naming task (presented in a similar way).
○ See a string of letters and have to decide if they form a word or not.

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8
Q

what is the prime word task?

A

Does a word presented before a target word effect processing of the target?
* If prime word related to target in spelling, sound or meaning, effects processing of target
* Given a word before the target word- dependent on whether the priming word affects the ability to identify the target word or not.
○ Identify the target word quicker when the priming word as similar as less processing is needed compared to when the priming word sounds nothing like the target word.

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9
Q

what are angloscentricites?

A

relationship between spelling (orthography) and sound (phonology) inconsistent
§ In English language- orthography and phonology don’t always match onto each other (e.g.: THE, WAS)

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10
Q

what did caravolas et al (2013) find about the development of reading abilities in children

A

Match picture of object to the relative object
* Over 30 month time frame, ability to match picture and word together happened a lot slower for English children because of the angloscentricities.

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11
Q

what is phonological processing?

A

the sound of words?

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12
Q

what is the weak phonological model?

A

○ Phonological processing is inessential for word identification
○ Don’t use phonological processing when reading

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13
Q

what are homophones?

A

Words with one pronunciation, but two spellings

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13
Q

what is the strong phonological model?

A

○ Phonological processing central for word identification
○ Have to process words to be able to read them (do use phonology)

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14
Q

what is the phonological processing using homophones?

A

consistent with the strong model
More errors made when word is homophone of real world (e.g. ROSE)
○ Suggests we do use phonological processing when listening to words (don’t process the spelling as much)
* Errors suggests engaged in phonological processing
(Van Orden, 1987)

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15
Q

what is phonological processing using phonological neighbours?

A

consistent with the string model
* When reading a sentence, look at words with many neighbours for shorter amount of time
○ Participants are engaged in phonological processing because they are looking at the sounds of the word
* Advantage suggests engaged in phonological processing
(Yates et al, 2008)

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16
Q

what are ohonological neighbours?

A

Words that differ in one phoneme

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17
Q

what is phonological processing using phonological priming?

A
  • Advantage suggests engaged in phonological processing
    ○ Processed faster when priming word is similar to target word
    ○ Takes longer to process when priming word is completely different
    (Rastle & Brysbaert, 2006)
    consistent with strong model
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18
Q

what is phonological priming?

A

Words processed faster when prime is phonologically identical

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19
Q

what are the limitations of phonological processing?

A

may not be essential for effective reading
○ Brain damaged patients can have impaired phonological processing, but still understand meaning of words
§ Still understand the semantic- may not need phonological processing at all if semantics are still in tact.

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20
Q

what is the interactive activation model of visual word recognition?

A

(McClelland & Rumelhart, 1981)
* Recognition units at three levels:
1. Feature level- bottom-up processing
2. Letter level
3. Word level
* Involves parallel processing: we can do both bottom-up and top-down processing to understand a word
○ Bottom-up and top-down processes interact

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21
Q

what is the word level of the interactive activation model?

A

understand the word

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22
Q

what is the letter level of the interactive activation model?

A

piece the letters together

23
Q

what is the feature level of the interactice activation model?

A

the features of the letters that make up the word

24
Q

what is the written word level of the interactice activation model?

A

see the word written down

25
Q

what is a lexicon?

A

bank of words, where all words that we are familiar with are stored.

26
Q

what can the interactice activation model account for?

A

word superiority effect
orthographic neighbours

27
Q

what is the word superiority effect?

A

○ Target letter readily detected in a letter string when the string forms a word rather than a non-word
○ Can clearly identify the difference between a word and a non-word because we are familiar with the string of letters already
* Letter string presented briefly followed by mask (e.g.: black box appearing between each word)
* Decide which two letters were in a given position
* Better when letter string forms a real word- makes it easier for us to identify the word

28
Q

what are orthographic neighbours?

A

○ Words formed by changing one of a target word’s letters and can influence recognition time
○ Changing one of a target words letters to make it easier to identify.
Emphasis on top-down processes from word level to letter level
* When word presented, neighbours activated
○ Neighbours facilitate target word recognition if they are less frequent (weakly activated) in language
§ Less orthographic neighbours a word has, the better (quicker you can identify a word)
○ Neighbours inhibit target word recognition if they are more frequent (strongly activated) in language
§ More orthographic neighbours a word has, longer it takes to process (more cognitive load due to working through all the orthographic neighbours a word has)
(Chen & Mirman, 2012)

29
Q

what are the limitations of the interactive activation model?

A
  • Limitations
    ○ Too much importance attached to letter order
    ○ Able to read text when first and last letters in correct place but others transposed
    ○ Emphasise letter order is irrelevant when trying to process a word reading- brain naturally fills in gaps if first and last letters are in order.
30
Q

what is semantic priming?

A

Target word recognised faster if preceded by semantically related word
○ More closely related the priming word I to the target, in their meaning, the easier quicker it is to process the target word.

31
Q

what are the 2 possible explanations of sematic priming?

A
  1. Automatically activates related words due to learning
    • Gives us words similar to primed word automatically- based on lexicon/experience.
  2. Expectation semantically related word will follow
    • Expect to see a similar, related word (in a similar context) once we see the priming word.
32
Q

what are the 2 makor thoretical approaches to reading aloud?

A

Dual-route model (Coltheart et al, 2001)
○ Two routes between printed word and speech
○ Activation at one level cascades onto the next
○ One process at a time, serial-processing model.
2. Connectionist triangle model (Plaut et al, 1996)
○ Based on highly interactive system between orthography
(spelling), phonology (sound) and semantics (meaning)
○ Semantics plays greater role in reading aloud
○ More of parallel-processing

33
Q

what is the first route of the dual route model?

A
  • Route 1 – grapheme-phoneme conversion
    • Convert spelling of a grapheme (small unit of written language) into a phoneme (basic unit of sound)
    • Permits accurate perception of regular words (i.e. spelling and sound correspond)
      ○ Spelling and sound correspond, the route is very simple
    • Does not permit perception of irregular words (i.e. spelling and sound do not correspond)
      Makes it harder to say the word as they are not the same

analyse the spelling of the word, then convert the letters of tghe word into the correct spelling, then you say the word

34
Q

what is the second route of the dual-route model?

A

lexicon and semantic knowledge
* Familiar words stored in orthographic input lexicon (a store of detailed word information)
○ Our existing knowledge of the spelling of words
* Printed word activates input lexicon, and extract meaning from semantic system.
○ We are familiar with the spelling of the word, we then unpack what the word means to pronounce the word and say it.
* Sound pattern generated in phonological output lexicon
○ Familiarity of how words sound.

starts the same as route 1 but once the word has been spelt it either uses the lexicon (already known word) to convert it to speech or it uses the semantic system (learns the meaning of the word) to put it into speech

35
Q

what is the connectionist traingle model?

A
  • Two routes from spelling to sound:
    1. Direct route between spelling and sound
    2. Indirect route via word meaning
    • Semantics plays a greater role in reading aloud than in dual-route model
      ○ Important in the process
36
Q

what is surface dyslexia?

A

○ Difficulties reading irregular words
§ Looking at angloscentricites: difficult to read the words
§ Don’t correspond to sound and spelling

37
Q

what is phonological dyslexia?

A

○ Difficulties reading words and non-words (pseudowords)
Difficulty understanding if a word is a real word or a non-real word.

38
Q

what is deep dyslexia?

A

○ Difficulties reading words and non-words (pseudowords)
○ Semantic errors: e.g.: ship and boat- say the wrong word (that isnt presented to them) because they are semantically similar)

39
Q

which route of the dual-route model is surface dyslexia explained by?

A

route 1
Rely on grapheme-phoneme conversion- what the word looks like is how it should sound.

40
Q

how is surface dyslexia explained by the connectionist triangle model?

A

Semantic deficit- cant understand the meaning of the word

41
Q

how is phonological dyslexia understood by the dual-route model?

A

route 2
Problems with grapheme-phoneme conversion-being able to convert a letter to a sound is where the deficit is- would rely on their lexicon instead.

42
Q

how is phonological dyslexia explained by the connectionist trangle model?

A

○ General phonological deficit not specific to reading- sounds of the words are in a deficit, not specific to reading.
Cant identify the sounds to make the words

43
Q

how is deep dyslexia explained by the dual-route model?

A

○ Out of scope of model
§ Cant explain deep dyslexia
Use different reading system based in right hemisphere of the brain

44
Q

how does the connectionist triangle model explain deep dyslexia?

A

○ General phonological deficit not specific to reading- phonological deficit (sounds of words)
○ Go straight to semantic processing (meaning)- not processing words from their sound

45
Q

what is speech perception?

A
  • A complex process that involves various stages:
    1. Select signal of interest from irrelevant inputs
      * If listening to some talking, select interest, ignore the other noise.
    2. Extract (or decode) the elements of interest (e.g. phonemes) from the speech signal
      * As you are listening to someone talking, decode elements of interest from speech signals.
    3. Word identification
      * Identify the phonemes of the speech
    4. Comprehension and interpretation
      ○ construct meaning and integrate to construct speaker’s intended message
46
Q

how does the pronunciation of phonemes affect listening to speech?

A
  • Adverse conditions decrease intelligibility
    ○ Phonemes pronounced in different ways (e.g. accents, dialects, rate of speaking)
47
Q

what is energetic masking?

A

○ Energetic masking: target degraded in some way (e.g. several people talking at the same time)
§ Target speakers noise is being spoken over.

48
Q

what is informational masking?

A

○ Informational masking: effect of cognitive load (e.g. completing multiple tasks)
§ Trying to work through al the different types of information in one go

49
Q

how does hearing loss affect communication?

A
  • Can make communication more difficult, especially when there is background noise
    • Harder to understand what is being spoken
      ○ Background noise and front noise is all blurred
      ○ Noise is much quieter
50
Q

what are the 3 factors to dealing with variability?

A
  1. stress
  2. coarticulation
  3. sentence context
51
Q

what is stress?

A

○ Initial syllable of content words (nouns, verbs) typically stressed in English
○ Put more emphasis on words
○ stress to enunciate them
○ important to listen to.

52
Q

What is coarticulation?

A

○ Pronunciation of phoneme depends on preceding and following phonemes
○ Phonemes at end of one word flow to the phonemes at the start for the next word
may change pronunciation of some of the phonemes to make them easier to understand

53
Q

what is sentence context?

A

○ Information that is not provided in the auditory signal
Info mot provided in auditory signal but brain fills in gaps to make sense of it.
○ Information provided by previous input (e.g. earlier parts of a sentence)
○ Build understanding on missing part
○ Top-down information provided by knowledge and experience of language/words
§ Top-down processing
§ Based on our own experiences to piece together missing information from auditory signa.
* Has a rapid influence on speech perception

54
Q

what is the phonemic restoration effect?

A
  • Listeners unaware that a phoneme has been removed and replaced by a non-speech sound
    • Evidence that we use top-down expectations based on sentence context
      (Warren & Warren, 1970)

cognitive research (12 decks)

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