Random Things to remember (FINAL) Flashcards
1
Q
What nerves both sympathetic and parasympathetic innervate the foregut?
A
Greater splanchnic - Sym (T5-T9)
Vagas - Para
2
Q
What nerves both sympathetic and parasympathetic innervate the midgut?
A
Greater and Lesser splanchnic - Sym (T5-T11)
Vagas - Para
3
Q
What nerves both sympathetic and parasympathetic innervate the hindgut?
A
Lumbar and Sacral Splanchnic - Sym
Pelvic splanchic - para
4
Q
What percentage of atmosphere is O2?
A
about 21%
5
Q
What is volume of shunted blood called that passes through the pulmonary circulation/min?
A
physiologic shunt
6
Q
air that remains in the respiratory passages or arrives in alveoli that are not particularly perfused wiht blood is called what?
A
physiological dead space air
7
Q
What portion of the lung has the highest VA/Q? meaning that is has less perfusion for the same amount of alveolar ventilation?
A
the upper part of the lung.
8
Q
what is the average arterial partial pressure of oxygen as it leaves the lung?
A
95mm HG
9
Q
what is the average arterial partial pressure of oxygen as it leaves the capillaries?
A
40mm Hg
10
Q
What is a better way to deliver more oxygen to the tissues? increasing the partial pressure of O2 or increasing the amount of hemoglobin/RBCs?
A
increasing the amount of hemoglobin because it gives O2 something to bind to because it is not very soluble in blood
11
Q
What molecule helps oxygen get off of hemoglobin more easily?
A
2,3 DPG
12
Q
Which effects regarding the blood’s capacity to handle CO2 and O2 are worded the same but named differently?
A
haldane effect (Oxygenation of blood) and bohr effect (pH of blood)
13
Q
what is the percent of water in plasma?
A
92%
14
Q
What vitamin is essential for clotting in both the intrinsic and extrinsic pathways?
A
vitamin K
15
Q
do allosteric enzymes follow MIchaelis-Menten kinetics?
A
no
16
Q
Where do allosteric enzymes have allosteric substrates bind?
A
not to the active site even if it is homotropic regulation
17
Q
do pacemaker cells like the SA and AV nodes have an absolute refractory period?
A
no
18
Q
The strength of a cardiac muscle contraction is directly proportional to what?
A
the intracellular Calcium concentration
19
Q
What is the bainbridge reflex?
A
it responds to changes in blood volume. Increases the heart rate when atrial pressure is high.
20
Q
What is a First Degree AV block?
A
when the PR interval is longer than it should be
21
Q
What is a Second Degree Type I AV block?
A
When the PR interval is cyclically lengthening until a QRS complex is dropped
22
Q
What is a Second Degree Type 2 AV block?
A
When the PR interval is normal but you get random dropping of QRS complexes
23
Q
What is a Third Degree AV block?
A
When you have atria and ventricles that are not in sync with each other. They are both irregular.
24
Q
What is bulk flow?
A
movement of protein free extracellular fluid and water soluble substances in and out through water filled pores or intercellular clefts
25
Where does the largest pressure drop happen in the vasculature?
the arterioles. That does not mean it is the lowest pressure it just means that is where we see the biggest drop in pressure
26
Does glucose make a hemi acetal or hemiketal?
hemi acetal
27
does fructose make a hemi ketal or a hemi acetal?
hemi ketal
28
What are the two sugars that make up lactose?
galactose and glucose
29
What are the linkages between glucose molecules in cellulose?
Beta 1,4 linkages (we cannot break them down)
30
What re the linkages between glucose moleules in starch?
Alpha 1,4 glucose linkages
31
What typical histological layer is the Pharynx missing making it only have 3 layers instead of the typical four that the rest of the digestive system has?
missing the muscularis mucosa/submucosa
32
What is the first digestive organ that has the typical four histological layers?
esophagus
33
what two things released by the digestive system cause HCL secretion?
gastrin and histamine
34
What does ghrelin do?
cause a feeling of satiation
35
what does serotonin do?
gives pleasure when you eat
36
How much of HCL secretion is do to the brain sending signals preparing the body for food, (cephalic) and how much is controlled by gastric signalling?
30% cephalic
60% gastric
10% im not sure
37
which part of the small intestine is most responsible for the absorption of things?
jejunum
38
Which part of the small intestin is most responsible for chemical digestion?
duodenum
39
Which part of the small intestine is most responsible fore absorption of lipid micelles?
ileum
40
what do brunner's glands secrete mostly?
mucus
41
What is the purpose Microfold (M) cells in the gut?
THey are specialized epithelial cells that sit over Peyer's patches and work as antigen presenting cells to the immune cells in the Peyer's patches
42
What is the purpose of enteroendocrine cells?
They are in charge of local and systemic signals relating to digestion and transit. They secrete things like CCK and Secretin and GIP and Peptide YY to cause things to happen in the gall bladder and pancreas
43
how are carbohydrates absorbed into the gut?
They are cotransported in the case of glucose with Sodium. Fructose however can just diffuse through the membrane
44
How do we get water to be absorbed in the gut?
we transport as much sodium into the intestinal cells as we can and then it draws the water into the cells because of osmosis
45
What does GIP (gastric inhibitory peptide) do?
stimulates insulin secretion by beta cells
46
what does peptide YY do?
signals long term satiety to the brain
47
What can superoxides and vitamin E do to help the body deal with free radicals that are formed?
They can accept the extra electron
48
name the 2 ways that ATP can be used for energy?
group transfer reaction
| hydrolysis
49
what is the Mesovarium?
portion of the broad ligament around the ovary
50
What is the female equivalent of the bulbourethral glands?
the greater vestibular gland
51
What nerve innervates somatic sensation for the exterior third of the vaginal canal and the clitoris?
the pudendal nerve
52
From what spinal cord levels does the pudendal nerve arise?
S2-4
53
What two modalities are in the pudendal nerve?
Somatic sensory and Somatic Motor
54
What is the innervation that causes the clitoris to erect?
Parasympathetic - Pelvic Splanchnic nerves (S2-S4)
55
What does noncompetitve inhibition do to Vmax and Km?
it reduces Vmax and does nothing to Km
56
What does uncompetitive inhibition do to Vmax and Km?
reduces Vmax and Km moves to the left
57
What does mixed inhibition do to the Vmax and Km?
reduces Vmax and Km moves to the right
58
What nerve is responsible for sensing stimulation in the male sexual response?
Pudendal
59
What nerve is responsible for Erection in the male sexual response? Is it para or sympathetic?
Pelvic Splanchnic nerves (parasympathetic)
60
What nerves are responsible for the Emission phase of the male sexual response? Is it para or sympathetic?
Lumbar and Sacral Splanchnic nerves (sympathetic)
61
What nerve is responsible fore Ejaculation in the male sexual response?
Pudendal nerve (somatic)
62
What is the artery that goes through the copora cavernosa?
central artery of the penis
63
What causes constriction of the internal urethral sphincter?
Norepinephrine through the Lumbar and Sacral Splanchnic nerve innervation
64
What enzyme is critical for all endocytosis?
Rab GTPase
65
What signalling pathway does Epinephrine use? to cause what?
G-protein and PLC signalling to cause vasoconstriction via release of calcium
66
What signaling pathway does Insulin use? to cause what?
RTK and MAPK signaling to transcription of genes needed for cellular growth and division (this is the example he wanted us to know)
PI3K signalling to cause the inactivation of GSK3 which will cause glycogen synthase to be activated and thus glycogen will be synthesized
67
T/F: glucose is a molecular precursor to other things?
True: like amino acids
68
What is the point of regulation for glycogenesis?
glycogen synthase enzyme
69
Glycogen has what linkages between glucose molecules?
Alpha 1,4 linkages with alpha 1,6 branch points
70
What is the action of glucose 6 phosphatase and what is the only organ in which it is found?
only found in the liver. Glucose 6 phosphatase takes off the phosphate from G6P to make it just Glucose.
71
Is Phosphorylase enzyme active or inactive when phosphorylated? What metabolic signals cause it to be phosphorylated?
it is active when phosphorylated. Glucagon and epinephrine cause it to be phosphorylated so that it breaks down more glycogen.
72
What are the enzymes that are the points of regulation for glycolysis and gluconeogenesis?
PFK1 for glycolysis and
| Frucose 1,6Bisphosphatase a.k.a. FBPase-1 for Gluconeeogenesis
73
What are the 4 enzymes involved in gluconeogenesis that are not invovled in glycolysis?
Glucose 6 phosphatase
Fructose 1,6 Bisphosphatase
PEP carboxykinase
Pyruvate Carboxylase
74
What are the input costs of Gluconeogenesis?
4 ATP
2 GTP
2 NADH + H+
75
What is the electron acceptor in Glycolysis and must be maintained for it to function?
NAD+
76
What are the net products of Glycolysis?
2 pyruvate
2ATP
2 NADH
77
Where do fructose and mannose enter the glycolysis pathway?
Fructose 6 Phosphate
78
Where does galactose enter the glycolysis pathway
it actually enters "pre-glycolysis" at glucose 1 phosphate so not actually part of glycolysis
79
The levels of what usually determine whether a cell is doing glycolysis or gluconeogenesis?
relative levels of AMP,ADP vs ATP
80
What is NADPH critical for?
fatty acid synthesis
81
WHere does NADPH come from?
comes from the pentose phosphate pathway
82
Why does the body ferment pyruvate into lactate?
to regenerate NAD+ so that glycolysis can continue to happen in anaerobic conditions
83
What does a mitochondria release when it is stressed that leads to cell death through the caspase system?
Cytochrome C
84
What vitamin necessary for pyruvate dehydrogenase which converts pyruvate to acetyl CoA?
Pantothenic acid, Vitamin B5
85
What is the enzyme that is involved in the Complex 2 of the Electron Transport chain as well as the Citric Acid cycle?
Succinate dehydrogenase
86
What caries electrons from complex 1 to complex 2 in the electron transport chain?
ubiquinone (Q)
87
What is another name for complex 1 in the Electron Transport Chain
NADH dehydrogenase
88
What does complex 3 of the electron transport chain transfer electrons to?
cytochrome C
89
How many protons pumped equal one ATP made?
4 H= 1 ATP
90
how many ATP does one NADH make? FADH?
2. 5 for NADH
| 1. 5 for FADH
91
What allows NADH to get into the matrix of the mitochondria?
the Malate Aspartate shuttle
92
What allows NADH to be used in the brain and skeletal muscle and what is it converted to in order to be used?
it is the Glycerol 3 Phosphate shuttle and it is converted into FADH before it is used
93
The neurocranium is divided into two parts. What are they?
The desmocranium, the external parts of the major skull bones.
The chondrocranium which is the area that connects to the viscerocranium
94
Which 3 bones are part of the viscero and neurocranium?
SET
Sphenoid
Ethmoid
Temporal
95
the superior and middle conchae are part of what bone?
ethmoid bone
96
What are the two ways that fatty acids are transported in the blood?
on the albumin in the blood - for free fatty acids
| in lipoproteins - for triglycerides
97
The more protein you have in a lipoprotein, the ________ dense you are and the _________ TGAs you can hold.
more; less
98
Which densities of lipoproteins are responsible for being the carriers of cholesterol even though all of them have it?
HDL and LDL
99
Which lipoprotein delivers fats to the different appropriate tissues and then becomes LDL?
VLDL
100
When a Triacylglyceride breaks down what are the products? What happens to those products to turn them into energy?
glycerol - goes into glycolysis at the GAP-ish level
| 3 fatty acids - becomes fatty acyl CoAs that can be use in beta oxidation.
101
Where does Beta oxidation take place and how does it get into that organelle?
it takes place in the matrix of the mitochondria and it uses the Carnitine shuttle to get into the matrix
102
How many ATP does one molecule of Palmitoyl-CoA produce?
108
103
WHat is produced per beta oxidation step?
1 NADH
1 FADH
1 Acetyl Coa
104
Under what conditions are fatty acids turned into Acetyl Coa and then into ketone bodies instead of entering the citric acid cycle?
starvation or lack of oxygen states
105
What does acetyl coa need to be turned into to be used to synthesize fatty acids? When enzyme adds those molecules together to synthesize fatty acids?
malonyl CoA
| fatty acid synthase 1 (FAS1) takes those and builds a fatty acid
106
How Does acetyl coa in the matrix of the mitochondria leave and go to the cytoplasm where fatty acid synthesis occurs?
the citrate shuttle
107
the citrate shuttle and the pentose phosphate pathway both create what unique molecule?
NADPH - which is absolutely necessary for the synthesis of fatty acids
108
What enzyme adds takes acetyl coa and and makes malonyl coa? What B vitamin is necessary for this process
acetyl coa carboxylase
109
What vitamin takes malonyl CoAs to the growing fatty acid chain in fatty acid synthesis?
Vitamin B5 - Pantothenic acid
110
What enzyme's activity (regulated by glucagon or insulin) determines whether we synthesize or break down fatty acids?
acetyl-Coa carboxylase
111
What other macromolecule (beside fatty acids) that is necessary for synthesis of steroid hormones is also created by using acetyl coa?
Cholesterol
112
What are the fascia layers in between the vertebrae and the esophagus from anterior to posterior
buccopharyngeal fascia
alar fascia
prevertebral fascia
113
What nerve innervates each belly of the digastric muscle?
anterior - V3
| Posterior - CN 7
114
What nerve innervates the stylohyoid muscle?
CN 7
115
Where do the scalenes attach to at both ends?
the. middle and anterior - C3-8 and then to the 1st rib
| posterior - C3-8 to 2nd rib
116
What nerve is in the submandibular triangle?
CN 12 - Hypoglossal
117
What is the main nerve that is in the carotid triangle? Hint: it is in the carotid sheath?
CN 10
118
what do delta cells of the islet of langerhans secrete? What is its funciton?
somatostatin - inhibits Pancreatic exocrine and endocrine function
119
In the liver Zone III is around what structure and is it oxygen poor or oxygen rich?
Zone III is around the central veins of the lobules and it is oxygen poor
120
CN 1 is technically part of what part of the brain?
the telencephelon
121
CN 2 is technically part of what part of the brain?
the diencephelon
122
what is the function of the lingual nerve coming off of V3?
sensory innervation of the anterior 2/3 of the tongue
123
What nerve runs with Lingual nerve to innervate taste for the anterior 2/3 of the tongue and salivary glands of the mouth?
Chorda Tympani
124
What nerve innervates stylopharyngeus?
CN 9
125
What are the two nerves that innervate the pharyngeal constrictors?
CN 10
126
What is the only nerve of all the eye nerves to go through the optic canal? Where do all the other ones enter the orbit?
optic nerve goes through the optic canal
| CN 3, 4, 6, V1 all go through the Superior Orbital Fissure
127
What 2 things go through the foramen spinosum? 1 artery; 1 nerve
middle meningeal artery and the meningeal branch of V3
128
Where does the lesser petrosal nerve exit the skull?
foramen ovale
129
Where does chorda tympani exit the skull?
the petrotympanic fissure
130
What things go through the jugular foramen?
Internal Jugular vein
Posterior meningeal artery
CN 9, 10, 11
131
What goes through the condylar canal?
the condylar vein
132
What is the major artery that supplies the midbrain?
posterior cerebral artery as well as the superior cerebellar artery
133
what are the 3 arteries that supply the medulla?
PICA
Vertebral
Anterior Spinal
134
What is the dura layer in between the cerebellum and the cerebrum?
Tentorium Cerebelli
135
Hitting the Pteryion and breaking the skull may cause a rupture in the middle meningeal artery. What kind of hematoma would this be?
epidural hematoma
136
A subdural hematoma usually results in the rupture of what? arteries or veins?
veins
137
What are the intrinsic tongue muscles?
superior longitudinal
transverse
vertical
inferior longitudinal
138
What glossus muscle is innervated by CN 10? What other nearby muscle is innervated by CN 10?
palatoglossus
| Palatopharyngeus is also innervated by CN 10
139
what nerve dives down through the incisive foramen?
the nasopalatine nerve
140
what 3 muscles elevate the pharynx?
palatopharyngeus
stylopharyngeus
salpingopharyngeus
141
All Pharyngeal muscles are innervated by what CN? except for one muscle. What is that muscle and the CN that controls it?
CN 10 does all of the pharyngeal muscles 3except for stylopharyngeus which is innervated by CN 9
142
what is the cartilage that the vocal folds attach to?
arytenoid cartilage
143
what are the branches of the lingual artery?
sublingual
deep branches
dorsal branches
144
What are the two fairly big arteries that supply the muscles of facial expression?
Facial
| Superficial Temporal
145
T/F: The medial hard palate has neither a submucosa nor a lamina propria
False: It has no submucosa but DOES have a lamina propria to attach the epithelium to the bone
146
which typical stratified squamous epithelium layers are missing from the lining mucosa of the mouth?
Corneum and Granulosum
147
what immune cells are in the epithelium of the oral mucosa?
langerhans cells
148
which taste buds are NON-keratinized?
fungiform and follate
149
von ebner's glands are associated with which type of taste buds?
circumvallate
150
ornithine is critical for disposing of what waste product?
urea
151
the urea cycle takes place in what two locations within a liver hepatocyte?
the mitochondria and the cytoplasm
152
in the urea cycle, glutamate donates its two ammonia ions and creates what to molecules which are then exported out of the mitochondria and donate their ammonia ions to create urea.
carbamoyl phosphate and aspartate
153
how are the citric acid cycle and the urea cycle linked?
through the arginino succinte shut of the citric acid cycle and the fact that the urea cycle gives off a fumarate that can then rejoin the citric acid cycle
154
what two vitamins are important for one carbon transfer reactions for amino acids?
Biotin B7
| Folic Acid B9 - for Tetrahydrofolate
155
what nerves does the greater petrossal run with to get to the lacrimal gland?
the zygomatic nerve and then hops over to the lacrimal nerve
156
Which six amino acids can be degraded to pyruvate? This one is very important
```
SGT CAT
serine
glycine
threonine
Cysteine
Alanine
Tryptophan
```
157
Which Seven amino acids can be degraded to acetyl coa
```
PITTTLL
Phenylalanine
Isoleucine
Tryptophan
Threonine
Tyrosine
Leucine
Lysine
```
158
Which five amino acids are degraded to alpha ketoglutarate? This one is very important
```
PHAGG
Proline
Histidine
Arginine
Glutamine
Glutamate
```
159
Which four amino acids are degraded to succinyle coa
```
TIM V
Threonine
Isoleucine
Methionine
Valine
```
160
Which 2 amino acids are degraded to Oxaloacetate?
Asparagine
| Aspartate
161
Name the three RNA polymerases and what kind of RNA that each creates?
RNA Polymerase 1,2,3 and r,m,t respectively
162
the elongation step in translation is dependent on hydrolysis of what energy molecule?
GTP
163
WHat are the seven precursors used to create some amino acids in humans?
3 phosphoglycerate
PEP
pyruvate
ribose 5 phosphate
erythrose 6 phosphate
oxaloacetate
alpha ketoglutarate
164
In humans 3 phosphoglycerate can be used to synthesize which 3 amino acids?
glycine
serine
cystine
165
Erythrose 6 phosphate and PEP can both be use to synthesize what in humans?
tyrosine
166
Pyruvate can be used to synthesize what amino acid in humans?
alanine
167
Oxaloacetate can be used to synthesize what 2 amino acids in humans?
aspartate and asparagine
168
Alpha keto glutarate can be used to sythesize what Amino acids in humans
Glutamate ---> Glutamine, Proline and Arginine
169
Can the kidney do gluconeogenesis?
yes during fasting states
170
what is the difference between cortical nephrons and juxtamedulary nephrons?
juxtamedullary are close to the medulla and have long loops of Henle
171
principle cells in the distal tubule of the kidney do what?
they reabsorb Na+ and secrete K+
172
the intercalated cells in the distal tubule of the kidney do what?
they absorb K+ and bicarb and secrete H+
173
medullary collecting ducts are permeable to what? This allows them to add to the concentration of the countercurrent exchange
urea
174
why is it good to have urea in the medulla of the kidney?
it allows even more urea to be excreted with as little water loss as possible because the urea stays in the urine instead of using osmosis to come back into the body
175
what two things to theca cells secrete?
androgens to stimulate the granulosa cells and Estrogens
176
what is the purpose of inhibins?
to negative feedback to the anterior pituitary
177
LH mainly acts on what cells in the female?
theca cells
178
FSH mainly acts on what cells in the female?
the granulosa cells
179
following ovulation the Granulosa cells switch from E2 producing to what?
progesterone
180
what is the hormone that is secreted that maintains the corpus luteum?
HCG which comes from the implanted egg
181
what does HCG do to the corpus luteum?
it prompts it to secrete more estrogen and progesterone to prevent further ovulation
182
T/F: adrenocortical hormones are steroid compounds
True
183
What is the function of aldosterone concerning sodium and potassium?
it increases sodium reabsorption and potassium excretion by the renal tubular epithelial cells in the collecting duct and distal tubules
184
which parts of the duodenum are secondary retroperitoneal?
2 - descending
| 3 - horizontal
185
which organs are retroperitoneal?
Retro Kids party down to AC/DC records
186
Which vitamins are essential?
B1,2,3,5,6,7,9,12 and vitamins ADECK are all essential
187
Which vitamins are potentially toxic?
A, E, B3, B6, C
188
Pregnant women who are vegetarian or rarely eat meat are at risk of being deficient in what Vitamin?
B2 - Riboflavin
189
what are the five common drugs given to Type 2 diabetics?
```
sulfonylureas
metformin
peroxisome Proliferator
alpha glucosidase inhibitors
combinations of those
```
190
which sinus lymph does not drain into the submandibular nodes?
Sphenoid - retropharyngeal
191
does nerve to sublcavious come off above or below the clavicle in the brachial plexus?
above
192
what do P-glycoproetins do?
transports drug molecules from cells back into the intestinal lumen for excretion
