Random Things to remember (FINAL) Flashcards
What nerves both sympathetic and parasympathetic innervate the foregut?
Greater splanchnic - Sym (T5-T9)
Vagas - Para
What nerves both sympathetic and parasympathetic innervate the midgut?
Greater and Lesser splanchnic - Sym (T5-T11)
Vagas - Para
What nerves both sympathetic and parasympathetic innervate the hindgut?
Lumbar and Sacral Splanchnic - Sym
Pelvic splanchic - para
What percentage of atmosphere is O2?
about 21%
What is volume of shunted blood called that passes through the pulmonary circulation/min?
physiologic shunt
air that remains in the respiratory passages or arrives in alveoli that are not particularly perfused wiht blood is called what?
physiological dead space air
What portion of the lung has the highest VA/Q? meaning that is has less perfusion for the same amount of alveolar ventilation?
the upper part of the lung.
what is the average arterial partial pressure of oxygen as it leaves the lung?
95mm HG
what is the average arterial partial pressure of oxygen as it leaves the capillaries?
40mm Hg
What is a better way to deliver more oxygen to the tissues? increasing the partial pressure of O2 or increasing the amount of hemoglobin/RBCs?
increasing the amount of hemoglobin because it gives O2 something to bind to because it is not very soluble in blood
What molecule helps oxygen get off of hemoglobin more easily?
2,3 DPG
Which effects regarding the blood’s capacity to handle CO2 and O2 are worded the same but named differently?
haldane effect (Oxygenation of blood) and bohr effect (pH of blood)
what is the percent of water in plasma?
92%
What vitamin is essential for clotting in both the intrinsic and extrinsic pathways?
vitamin K
do allosteric enzymes follow MIchaelis-Menten kinetics?
no
Where do allosteric enzymes have allosteric substrates bind?
not to the active site even if it is homotropic regulation
do pacemaker cells like the SA and AV nodes have an absolute refractory period?
no
The strength of a cardiac muscle contraction is directly proportional to what?
the intracellular Calcium concentration
What is the bainbridge reflex?
it responds to changes in blood volume. Increases the heart rate when atrial pressure is high.
What is a First Degree AV block?
when the PR interval is longer than it should be
What is a Second Degree Type I AV block?
When the PR interval is cyclically lengthening until a QRS complex is dropped
What is a Second Degree Type 2 AV block?
When the PR interval is normal but you get random dropping of QRS complexes
What is a Third Degree AV block?
When you have atria and ventricles that are not in sync with each other. They are both irregular.
What is bulk flow?
movement of protein free extracellular fluid and water soluble substances in and out through water filled pores or intercellular clefts
Where does the largest pressure drop happen in the vasculature?
the arterioles. That does not mean it is the lowest pressure it just means that is where we see the biggest drop in pressure
Does glucose make a hemi acetal or hemiketal?
hemi acetal
does fructose make a hemi ketal or a hemi acetal?
hemi ketal
What are the two sugars that make up lactose?
galactose and glucose
What are the linkages between glucose molecules in cellulose?
Beta 1,4 linkages (we cannot break them down)
What re the linkages between glucose moleules in starch?
Alpha 1,4 glucose linkages
What typical histological layer is the Pharynx missing making it only have 3 layers instead of the typical four that the rest of the digestive system has?
missing the muscularis mucosa/submucosa
What is the first digestive organ that has the typical four histological layers?
esophagus
what two things released by the digestive system cause HCL secretion?
gastrin and histamine
What does ghrelin do?
cause a feeling of satiation
what does serotonin do?
gives pleasure when you eat
How much of HCL secretion is do to the brain sending signals preparing the body for food, (cephalic) and how much is controlled by gastric signalling?
30% cephalic
60% gastric
10% im not sure
which part of the small intestine is most responsible for the absorption of things?
jejunum
Which part of the small intestin is most responsible for chemical digestion?
duodenum
Which part of the small intestine is most responsible fore absorption of lipid micelles?
ileum
what do brunner’s glands secrete mostly?
mucus
What is the purpose Microfold (M) cells in the gut?
THey are specialized epithelial cells that sit over Peyer’s patches and work as antigen presenting cells to the immune cells in the Peyer’s patches
What is the purpose of enteroendocrine cells?
They are in charge of local and systemic signals relating to digestion and transit. They secrete things like CCK and Secretin and GIP and Peptide YY to cause things to happen in the gall bladder and pancreas
how are carbohydrates absorbed into the gut?
They are cotransported in the case of glucose with Sodium. Fructose however can just diffuse through the membrane
How do we get water to be absorbed in the gut?
we transport as much sodium into the intestinal cells as we can and then it draws the water into the cells because of osmosis
What does GIP (gastric inhibitory peptide) do?
stimulates insulin secretion by beta cells
what does peptide YY do?
signals long term satiety to the brain
What can superoxides and vitamin E do to help the body deal with free radicals that are formed?
They can accept the extra electron
name the 2 ways that ATP can be used for energy?
group transfer reaction
hydrolysis
what is the Mesovarium?
portion of the broad ligament around the ovary
What is the female equivalent of the bulbourethral glands?
the greater vestibular gland
What nerve innervates somatic sensation for the exterior third of the vaginal canal and the clitoris?
the pudendal nerve
From what spinal cord levels does the pudendal nerve arise?
S2-4
What two modalities are in the pudendal nerve?
Somatic sensory and Somatic Motor
What is the innervation that causes the clitoris to erect?
Parasympathetic - Pelvic Splanchnic nerves (S2-S4)
What does noncompetitve inhibition do to Vmax and Km?
it reduces Vmax and does nothing to Km
What does uncompetitive inhibition do to Vmax and Km?
reduces Vmax and Km moves to the left
What does mixed inhibition do to the Vmax and Km?
reduces Vmax and Km moves to the right
What nerve is responsible for sensing stimulation in the male sexual response?
Pudendal
What nerve is responsible for Erection in the male sexual response? Is it para or sympathetic?
Pelvic Splanchnic nerves (parasympathetic)
What nerves are responsible for the Emission phase of the male sexual response? Is it para or sympathetic?
Lumbar and Sacral Splanchnic nerves (sympathetic)
What nerve is responsible fore Ejaculation in the male sexual response?
Pudendal nerve (somatic)
What is the artery that goes through the copora cavernosa?
central artery of the penis
What causes constriction of the internal urethral sphincter?
Norepinephrine through the Lumbar and Sacral Splanchnic nerve innervation
What enzyme is critical for all endocytosis?
Rab GTPase
What signalling pathway does Epinephrine use? to cause what?
G-protein and PLC signalling to cause vasoconstriction via release of calcium
What signaling pathway does Insulin use? to cause what?
RTK and MAPK signaling to transcription of genes needed for cellular growth and division (this is the example he wanted us to know)
PI3K signalling to cause the inactivation of GSK3 which will cause glycogen synthase to be activated and thus glycogen will be synthesized
T/F: glucose is a molecular precursor to other things?
True: like amino acids
What is the point of regulation for glycogenesis?
glycogen synthase enzyme
Glycogen has what linkages between glucose molecules?
Alpha 1,4 linkages with alpha 1,6 branch points
What is the action of glucose 6 phosphatase and what is the only organ in which it is found?
only found in the liver. Glucose 6 phosphatase takes off the phosphate from G6P to make it just Glucose.
Is Phosphorylase enzyme active or inactive when phosphorylated? What metabolic signals cause it to be phosphorylated?
it is active when phosphorylated. Glucagon and epinephrine cause it to be phosphorylated so that it breaks down more glycogen.
What are the enzymes that are the points of regulation for glycolysis and gluconeogenesis?
PFK1 for glycolysis and
Frucose 1,6Bisphosphatase a.k.a. FBPase-1 for Gluconeeogenesis
What are the 4 enzymes involved in gluconeogenesis that are not invovled in glycolysis?
Glucose 6 phosphatase
Fructose 1,6 Bisphosphatase
PEP carboxykinase
Pyruvate Carboxylase
What are the input costs of Gluconeogenesis?
4 ATP
2 GTP
2 NADH + H+
What is the electron acceptor in Glycolysis and must be maintained for it to function?
NAD+
What are the net products of Glycolysis?
2 pyruvate
2ATP
2 NADH
Where do fructose and mannose enter the glycolysis pathway?
Fructose 6 Phosphate
Where does galactose enter the glycolysis pathway
it actually enters “pre-glycolysis” at glucose 1 phosphate so not actually part of glycolysis
The levels of what usually determine whether a cell is doing glycolysis or gluconeogenesis?
relative levels of AMP,ADP vs ATP
What is NADPH critical for?
fatty acid synthesis
WHere does NADPH come from?
comes from the pentose phosphate pathway
Why does the body ferment pyruvate into lactate?
to regenerate NAD+ so that glycolysis can continue to happen in anaerobic conditions
What does a mitochondria release when it is stressed that leads to cell death through the caspase system?
Cytochrome C
What vitamin necessary for pyruvate dehydrogenase which converts pyruvate to acetyl CoA?
Pantothenic acid, Vitamin B5
What is the enzyme that is involved in the Complex 2 of the Electron Transport chain as well as the Citric Acid cycle?
Succinate dehydrogenase
What caries electrons from complex 1 to complex 2 in the electron transport chain?
ubiquinone (Q)
What is another name for complex 1 in the Electron Transport Chain
NADH dehydrogenase
What does complex 3 of the electron transport chain transfer electrons to?
cytochrome C
How many protons pumped equal one ATP made?
4 H= 1 ATP
how many ATP does one NADH make? FADH?
- 5 for NADH
1. 5 for FADH
What allows NADH to get into the matrix of the mitochondria?
the Malate Aspartate shuttle
What allows NADH to be used in the brain and skeletal muscle and what is it converted to in order to be used?
it is the Glycerol 3 Phosphate shuttle and it is converted into FADH before it is used
The neurocranium is divided into two parts. What are they?
The desmocranium, the external parts of the major skull bones.
The chondrocranium which is the area that connects to the viscerocranium
Which 3 bones are part of the viscero and neurocranium?
SET
Sphenoid
Ethmoid
Temporal
the superior and middle conchae are part of what bone?
ethmoid bone
What are the two ways that fatty acids are transported in the blood?
on the albumin in the blood - for free fatty acids
in lipoproteins - for triglycerides
The more protein you have in a lipoprotein, the ________ dense you are and the _________ TGAs you can hold.
more; less
Which densities of lipoproteins are responsible for being the carriers of cholesterol even though all of them have it?
HDL and LDL
Which lipoprotein delivers fats to the different appropriate tissues and then becomes LDL?
VLDL
When a Triacylglyceride breaks down what are the products? What happens to those products to turn them into energy?
glycerol - goes into glycolysis at the GAP-ish level
3 fatty acids - becomes fatty acyl CoAs that can be use in beta oxidation.
Where does Beta oxidation take place and how does it get into that organelle?
it takes place in the matrix of the mitochondria and it uses the Carnitine shuttle to get into the matrix
How many ATP does one molecule of Palmitoyl-CoA produce?
108
WHat is produced per beta oxidation step?
1 NADH
1 FADH
1 Acetyl Coa
Under what conditions are fatty acids turned into Acetyl Coa and then into ketone bodies instead of entering the citric acid cycle?
starvation or lack of oxygen states
What does acetyl coa need to be turned into to be used to synthesize fatty acids? When enzyme adds those molecules together to synthesize fatty acids?
malonyl CoA
fatty acid synthase 1 (FAS1) takes those and builds a fatty acid
How Does acetyl coa in the matrix of the mitochondria leave and go to the cytoplasm where fatty acid synthesis occurs?
the citrate shuttle
the citrate shuttle and the pentose phosphate pathway both create what unique molecule?
NADPH - which is absolutely necessary for the synthesis of fatty acids
What enzyme adds takes acetyl coa and and makes malonyl coa? What B vitamin is necessary for this process
acetyl coa carboxylase
What vitamin takes malonyl CoAs to the growing fatty acid chain in fatty acid synthesis?
Vitamin B5 - Pantothenic acid
What enzyme’s activity (regulated by glucagon or insulin) determines whether we synthesize or break down fatty acids?
acetyl-Coa carboxylase
What other macromolecule (beside fatty acids) that is necessary for synthesis of steroid hormones is also created by using acetyl coa?
Cholesterol
What are the fascia layers in between the vertebrae and the esophagus from anterior to posterior
buccopharyngeal fascia
alar fascia
prevertebral fascia
What nerve innervates each belly of the digastric muscle?
anterior - V3
Posterior - CN 7
What nerve innervates the stylohyoid muscle?
CN 7
Where do the scalenes attach to at both ends?
the. middle and anterior - C3-8 and then to the 1st rib
posterior - C3-8 to 2nd rib
What nerve is in the submandibular triangle?
CN 12 - Hypoglossal
What is the main nerve that is in the carotid triangle? Hint: it is in the carotid sheath?
CN 10
what do delta cells of the islet of langerhans secrete? What is its funciton?
somatostatin - inhibits Pancreatic exocrine and endocrine function
In the liver Zone III is around what structure and is it oxygen poor or oxygen rich?
Zone III is around the central veins of the lobules and it is oxygen poor
CN 1 is technically part of what part of the brain?
the telencephelon
CN 2 is technically part of what part of the brain?
the diencephelon
what is the function of the lingual nerve coming off of V3?
sensory innervation of the anterior 2/3 of the tongue
What nerve runs with Lingual nerve to innervate taste for the anterior 2/3 of the tongue and salivary glands of the mouth?
Chorda Tympani
What nerve innervates stylopharyngeus?
CN 9
What are the two nerves that innervate the pharyngeal constrictors?
CN 10
What is the only nerve of all the eye nerves to go through the optic canal? Where do all the other ones enter the orbit?
optic nerve goes through the optic canal
CN 3, 4, 6, V1 all go through the Superior Orbital Fissure
What 2 things go through the foramen spinosum? 1 artery; 1 nerve
middle meningeal artery and the meningeal branch of V3
Where does the lesser petrosal nerve exit the skull?
foramen ovale
Where does chorda tympani exit the skull?
the petrotympanic fissure
What things go through the jugular foramen?
Internal Jugular vein
Posterior meningeal artery
CN 9, 10, 11
What goes through the condylar canal?
the condylar vein
What is the major artery that supplies the midbrain?
posterior cerebral artery as well as the superior cerebellar artery
what are the 3 arteries that supply the medulla?
PICA
Vertebral
Anterior Spinal
What is the dura layer in between the cerebellum and the cerebrum?
Tentorium Cerebelli
Hitting the Pteryion and breaking the skull may cause a rupture in the middle meningeal artery. What kind of hematoma would this be?
epidural hematoma
A subdural hematoma usually results in the rupture of what? arteries or veins?
veins
What are the intrinsic tongue muscles?
superior longitudinal
transverse
vertical
inferior longitudinal
What glossus muscle is innervated by CN 10? What other nearby muscle is innervated by CN 10?
palatoglossus
Palatopharyngeus is also innervated by CN 10
what nerve dives down through the incisive foramen?
the nasopalatine nerve
what 3 muscles elevate the pharynx?
palatopharyngeus
stylopharyngeus
salpingopharyngeus
All Pharyngeal muscles are innervated by what CN? except for one muscle. What is that muscle and the CN that controls it?
CN 10 does all of the pharyngeal muscles 3except for stylopharyngeus which is innervated by CN 9
what is the cartilage that the vocal folds attach to?
arytenoid cartilage
what are the branches of the lingual artery?
sublingual
deep branches
dorsal branches
What are the two fairly big arteries that supply the muscles of facial expression?
Facial
Superficial Temporal
T/F: The medial hard palate has neither a submucosa nor a lamina propria
False: It has no submucosa but DOES have a lamina propria to attach the epithelium to the bone
which typical stratified squamous epithelium layers are missing from the lining mucosa of the mouth?
Corneum and Granulosum
what immune cells are in the epithelium of the oral mucosa?
langerhans cells
which taste buds are NON-keratinized?
fungiform and follate
von ebner’s glands are associated with which type of taste buds?
circumvallate
ornithine is critical for disposing of what waste product?
urea
the urea cycle takes place in what two locations within a liver hepatocyte?
the mitochondria and the cytoplasm
in the urea cycle, glutamate donates its two ammonia ions and creates what to molecules which are then exported out of the mitochondria and donate their ammonia ions to create urea.
carbamoyl phosphate and aspartate
how are the citric acid cycle and the urea cycle linked?
through the arginino succinte shut of the citric acid cycle and the fact that the urea cycle gives off a fumarate that can then rejoin the citric acid cycle
what two vitamins are important for one carbon transfer reactions for amino acids?
Biotin B7
Folic Acid B9 - for Tetrahydrofolate
what nerves does the greater petrossal run with to get to the lacrimal gland?
the zygomatic nerve and then hops over to the lacrimal nerve
Which six amino acids can be degraded to pyruvate? This one is very important
SGT CAT serine glycine threonine Cysteine Alanine Tryptophan
Which Seven amino acids can be degraded to acetyl coa
PITTTLL Phenylalanine Isoleucine Tryptophan Threonine Tyrosine Leucine Lysine
Which five amino acids are degraded to alpha ketoglutarate? This one is very important
PHAGG Proline Histidine Arginine Glutamine Glutamate
Which four amino acids are degraded to succinyle coa
TIM V Threonine Isoleucine Methionine Valine
Which 2 amino acids are degraded to Oxaloacetate?
Asparagine
Aspartate
Name the three RNA polymerases and what kind of RNA that each creates?
RNA Polymerase 1,2,3 and r,m,t respectively
the elongation step in translation is dependent on hydrolysis of what energy molecule?
GTP
WHat are the seven precursors used to create some amino acids in humans?
3 phosphoglycerate
PEP
pyruvate
ribose 5 phosphate
erythrose 6 phosphate
oxaloacetate
alpha ketoglutarate
In humans 3 phosphoglycerate can be used to synthesize which 3 amino acids?
glycine
serine
cystine
Erythrose 6 phosphate and PEP can both be use to synthesize what in humans?
tyrosine
Pyruvate can be used to synthesize what amino acid in humans?
alanine
Oxaloacetate can be used to synthesize what 2 amino acids in humans?
aspartate and asparagine
Alpha keto glutarate can be used to sythesize what Amino acids in humans
Glutamate —> Glutamine, Proline and Arginine
Can the kidney do gluconeogenesis?
yes during fasting states
what is the difference between cortical nephrons and juxtamedulary nephrons?
juxtamedullary are close to the medulla and have long loops of Henle
principle cells in the distal tubule of the kidney do what?
they reabsorb Na+ and secrete K+
the intercalated cells in the distal tubule of the kidney do what?
they absorb K+ and bicarb and secrete H+
medullary collecting ducts are permeable to what? This allows them to add to the concentration of the countercurrent exchange
urea
why is it good to have urea in the medulla of the kidney?
it allows even more urea to be excreted with as little water loss as possible because the urea stays in the urine instead of using osmosis to come back into the body
what two things to theca cells secrete?
androgens to stimulate the granulosa cells and Estrogens
what is the purpose of inhibins?
to negative feedback to the anterior pituitary
LH mainly acts on what cells in the female?
theca cells
FSH mainly acts on what cells in the female?
the granulosa cells
following ovulation the Granulosa cells switch from E2 producing to what?
progesterone
what is the hormone that is secreted that maintains the corpus luteum?
HCG which comes from the implanted egg
what does HCG do to the corpus luteum?
it prompts it to secrete more estrogen and progesterone to prevent further ovulation
T/F: adrenocortical hormones are steroid compounds
True
What is the function of aldosterone concerning sodium and potassium?
it increases sodium reabsorption and potassium excretion by the renal tubular epithelial cells in the collecting duct and distal tubules
which parts of the duodenum are secondary retroperitoneal?
2 - descending
3 - horizontal
which organs are retroperitoneal?
Retro Kids party down to AC/DC records
Which vitamins are essential?
B1,2,3,5,6,7,9,12 and vitamins ADECK are all essential
Which vitamins are potentially toxic?
A, E, B3, B6, C
Pregnant women who are vegetarian or rarely eat meat are at risk of being deficient in what Vitamin?
B2 - Riboflavin
what are the five common drugs given to Type 2 diabetics?
sulfonylureas metformin peroxisome Proliferator alpha glucosidase inhibitors combinations of those
which sinus lymph does not drain into the submandibular nodes?
Sphenoid - retropharyngeal
does nerve to sublcavious come off above or below the clavicle in the brachial plexus?
above
what do P-glycoproetins do?
transports drug molecules from cells back into the intestinal lumen for excretion
