Random Flashcards
which areas of the HYPOTHALAMUS influence PARASYMPATHETIC ACTIVITY
ie Salivation, Increased GI Motility, Lowering HR and BP, Sweating
- PRE-OPTIC
- ANTERIOR
which area of the HYPOTHALAMUS influence ENDOCRINE ACTIVITY - PITUITARY GLAND
ANTERIOR NUCLEI
which areas of the HYPOTHALAMUS influence SYMPATHETIC ACTIVITY
ie Increase HR and BP, Vasoconstriction, Shivering, stopping GI Peristalsis
- LATERAL
- POSTERIOR
development of THYROID GLAND starts as an ENDORDERMAL THICKENING on the TONGUE which burrows through to form ..
THYROGLOSSAL DUCT
- travels down and brings thyroid tissue with it
THYROID covers which TRACHEAL RINGS
2ND, 3RD, 4TH
EFFECT of SOMATOSTATIN on GI/PANCREATIC HORMONE release
INHIBITS
also inhibits GROWTH HORMONE, TSH
EFFECT of VASOACTIVE INTESTINAL POLYPEPTIDE on INTESTINAL ABSORPTIONS
INHIBITS
stops HCL and Pepsinogen release too
But RELAXES LOS for bolus to enter
MINERALCORTICOIDS (ALDOSTERONE) are produced where in ADRENAL GLAND
ZONA GLOMERULOSA
SEX HORMONES / ANDROGENS (Androstenedione, Dehyroepiandrosterone) are produced where in ADRENAL GLAND
ZONA RETICULARIS
GLUCOCORTICOIDS (CORTISOL) are produced where in ADRENAL GLAND
ZONA FASCICULATA
(large middle portion of cortex)
ADRENALINE/NORADRENALINE are produced where in ADRENAL GLAND
MEDULLA
which KIDNEY is LOWER
RIGHT
SHAPE of RIGHT SUPRENAL GLAND (on right kidney)
PYRAMIDAL
SHAPE of LEFT SUPRENAL GLAND (on left kidney)
SEMI-LUNAR
HORMONE that KIDNEY SECRETES that ELEVATES BLOOD OXYGEN
ERYTHROPOIETIN (EPO)
- promotes RBC FORMATION by Bone Marrow
so higher circulating RBC and higher blood O2
(can be used to treat aneamia)
what does KIDNEYS RELEASE to INCREASE BLOOD CALCIUM as a result of PARATHYROID HORMONE
CALCITRIOL - active VITAMIN D
-> stimulates GUT to absorb calcium
AMINO ACID DERIVED HORMONES (thyroid hormones, catecholamines) are commonly derived from which AMINO ACIDS
TYROSINE
TRYPTOPHAN
THYROID HORMONES are … SOLUBLE
LIPID
CATECHOLAMINES are … SOLUBLE
WATER
what is a SMALL Peptide Hormone
TSH
what is a LARGE Peptide Hormone
INSULIN
which HORMONE is RELEASED by the HEART in response to HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE and DILATION of ATRIUM
ANP - ATRIAL NATRIURETIC PEPTIDE
- regulates homeostasis of circulatory system
EICOSANOIDS (fatty acid derived) such as PROSTAGLANDIN are synthesised from a 20 carbon AMINO ACID called:
ARACHIDONIC ACID
what type of HORMONES bind to INTRACELLULAR RECEPTORS
(which binds gene promoter regions to stimulate/inhibit transcription)
HYDROPHOBIC (lipid derived)
eg Mineralcorticoids (aldosterone)
Glucocorticoids (cortisol)
Sex Hormones
and Lipid Soluble - Thyroid hormones
which hormones use G-PROTEIN LINKED RECEPTORS
CATECHOLAMINES
which hormone uses ENZYME LINKED RECEPTOR - TYROSINE KINASE Receptor
INSULIN
which hormone acts on FAT CELLS to stimulate BREAKDOWN of TRIGLYCERIDES
GROWTH HORMONE
hormone from PINEAL GLAND
MELATONIN
(response to darkness)
examples of hormones that use cAMP as a SECOND MESSENGER
(G-PROTEIN COUPLED RECEPTOR)
- ADRENALINE / NORADRENALINE
- GLUCAGON
- LH, FSH
- TSH
- PARATHYROID, CALCITONIN
- ADH
- Angiotensin II
- Histamines
PITUITARY FOSSA / SELLA TURCICA / HYPOPHYSEAL FOSSA is in which bone
SPHENOID BONE
ANTERIOR PITUITARY is Derived from..
ECTODERM of RATHKE’S POUCH
POSTERIOR PITUITARY is Derived from…
NEURAL ECTODERM from Floor of DIENCEPHALON
which hormones STIMULATE and INHIBIT PROLACTIN release from Anterior Pituitary (Lactotrophs)
+ : TRH (THYROTROPHIN RELEASING HORMONE)
- : DOPAMINE
what hormone release is stimulated by STRESS, EXERCISE, HYPOGLYCAEMIA, MALNOURISHMENT, SEPSIS
GHRH from Hypothalamus
-> GROWTH HORMONE
(stimulates IGF-1 from Liver)
what hormone release is stimulated by STRESS, EXERCISE, HYPOGLYCAEMIA, MALNOURISHMENT, SEPSIS
GHRH from Hypothalamus
-> GROWTH HORMONE
(stimulates IGF-1 from Liver)
what provide NEGATIVE FEEDBACK for GHRH
(Long loop)
FREE FATTY ACIDS
(from adipocytes, lipolysis from GH)
which Hormone follows CIRCADIAN RHYTHM where it PEAKS in the MORNING
CORTISOL
which hormone release is stimulated during
STRESS, HYPOTENSION, HYPOGLYCAEMIA, SEPSIS, SURGERY
CRH
-> ACTH
-> CORTISOL
CORTISOL EFFECT on BONE
INHIBIT OSTEOBLASTS
- Inhibit Bone Formation
what is the EFFECT of THYROID HORMONES on BONES
INCREASED BONE TURNOVER and RESPORPTION
- reabsorb and reform
osteoclasts and osteoblasts
which NUCLEI in the HYPOTHALAMUS produce OXYTOCIN & VASOPRESSIN/ADH/AVP that are stored in posterior pituitary
PARAVENTRICULAR nucleus
SUPRAOPTIC nucleus
Products of GLYCOLYSIS
2 ATP (net gain)
2 NADH
2 PYRUVATE
Products of the LINK REACTION
for 2 GLUCOSE (2 cycles):
2 ACETYL CoA
2 CO2
2 NADH
products of the KREBS CYCLE
1 cycle:
2 CO2
1 GTP
1 FADH
3 NADH
2 CYCLES (for 1 glucose):
4 CO2
2 GTP
2 FADH
6 NADH
- which Glucose receptor/transporter has the Highest affinity (and lowest Km) and thus is found in the BRAIN? for preferential uptake in HYPOGLYCAEMIA
- which is INSULIN SENSITIVE?
- which has the Lowest affinity but is found in Pancreatic Beta cells for Insulin production?
- GLUT3
(GLUT1 also in brain) - GLUT4
- GLUT2
what is Km
CONC. of substrate that permits the enzyme to achieve HALF LIFE
which hormones stimulate INSULIN secretion (incretins)
GLP-1 (glucagon like peptide 1)
GIP (gastric inhibitory polypeptide)
what causes INSULIN RELEASE from Beta cells
at rest cell is polarised (K+ efflux)
- Glucose intake by GLUT2
- GLYCOLYSIS generates ATP
- ATP-SENSITIVE K+ CHANNELS CLOSE
- CA2+ CHANNELS OPEN (ca2+ influx)
- DEPOLARISATION causes Vesicles containing INSULIN to move to surface and RELEASE (exocytosis)
also stimulated by GLP-1 binding
INSULIN how many amino acids peptide
GLUCAGON how many amino acids peptide
51 (pro-insulin 84 aa)
29
how are THYROID HORMONES synthesised
THYROGLOBULIN synthesised in FOLLICULAR CELLS and EXOCYTOSED into COLLOID
IODIDE (I-) UPTAKE into FOLLICULAR CELLS, from blood and OXIDISED into IODINE (I). transferred to COLLOID
- in colloid IODINE attaches to TYROSINE RESIDUES on THYROGLOBULIN to form MONO-IODOTYROSINE (MIT) and DI-IODOTYROSINE (DIT)
- COUPLING processes to form T4 / THYROXINE (2DIT) and T3 / TRI-IODOTHYRONINE (MIT)
(mostly T4) - released from cell by ENDOCYTOSIS
Conversion / Monodeiodination of T4 INTO T3 (4x more potent) in the LIVER and KIDNEY by what
TYPE 1,5’ - DEIODINASE
thyroid gland weight
25g
TSH RECEPTORS on FOLLICULAR CELLS (thyroid) are what type
G-PROTEIN COUPLED
- second messenger cAMP
which pancreatic hormone uses G-PROTEIN COUPLED RECEPTOR
GLUCAGON
which Hormone is CALORIGENIC (HEAT PRODUCING)
THYROID Hormones
HYPOTHYROIDISM symptoms and signs
(increased TSH may indicate)
- FATIGUE, WEAKNESS, LETHARGY
- COLD INTOLERANCE
- MENTAL SLOWNESS, Poor memory, concentration, hearing
- DRY SKIN
- HOARSE voice
- CONSTIPATION
- MUSCLE CRAMPS
- IRREGULAR PERIODS, INFERTILITY
- FLUID RETENTION / NON-PITTING EDEMA from fluid build up (swelling)
- mild WEIGHT GAIN with Poor Appetite
- Hair Loss
- SHORTNESS of BREATH
- SLOW PULSE / BRADYCHARDIA
- SLOW SPEECH, SLOW MOVEMENTS, DELAYED RELAXATION
- HYPERTENSION
- GOITRE - visible Swelling of thyroid (primary)
- DEPRESSION
- Face may appear swollen/puffy, puffy eyes
ADRENAL GLAND has a very rich blood supply.
where do these branch from?
Superior supra renal artery:
Middle supra renal artery:
Inferior supra renal artery:
Superior supra renal artery:
INFERIOR PHRENIC Artery
Middle supra renal artery:
AORTA
Inferior supra renal artery:
RENAL Artery
what are the ADRENAL CORTEX and MEDULLA derived from
Cortex: LATERAL MESODERM
Medulla: NEUROECTODERM
- NEURAL CREST CELLS
which hormones have a CYCLOPENTANOPHENANTHARINE structure
ADRENOCORTICO Hormones
(from adrenal cortex)
- MINERALCORTICOIDS - ALDOSTERONE
- GLUCOCORTICOIDS - CORTISOL
- SEX HORMONES & ANDROGENS (androstenedione, dehydroepiandrosterone)
CONN’S SYNDROME is Excess of…
CUSHING’S SYNDROME (gru) is Excess of…
Conn’s: ALDOSTERONE
Cushing’s: CORTISOL
ADDISON’S DISEASE is due to
ALDOSTERONE & CORTISOL UNDER-PRODUCTION
Conversion of Cholesterol into which Hormone is promoted by CA2+ and PROTEIN KINASE C
ALDOSTERONE
(cortisol uses cAMP and protein kinase A from ACTH binding)
how are CATECHOLAMINES formed
by HYDROXYLATION and DECARBOXYLATION of TYROSINE
(Levo-Dopa and Dopamine intermediaries)
what is PRECHROMOCYTOMA
HYPERSECRETION of CATECHOLAMINES
45% of blood CA2+ is bound to..
(1% of body Ca2+ in blood, 99% as hydroxyapatite)
ALBUMIN
(not functional)
(pH dependent)
Ca2+ normal serum range
2.18 - 2.62
Ca2+ daily requirements
Infants & children:
Teenagers:
Adults:
Infants & children: 350 - 550 mg/day
Teenagers: 800 - 1000 mg/day
Adults: 700 mg/day
PHOSPHATE normal blood range:
Adults need how much a day?
0.8 - 1.5 mmol/L
550 mg phosphorus / day
what can HYPERPHOSPHATAEMIA (high phosphates) cause
HYPOCALAEMIA (low ca2+)
- Calcification of soft tissue, arteries, heart valves
CHIEF cells and OXYPHIL cells are found in which gland
PARATHYROID Glands
chief cells: PTH
PARATHYROID GLANDS are derived from..
ENDODERM
- 3 and 4 PHARYNGEAL POUCHES
how many Amino acids in PARATHYROID HORMONE
84
pre-pro PTH : 115
pro PTH: 90
Effect of PTH on PHOSPHATE LEVELS
DECREASES PHOSPHATE REABSORPTION from KIDNEY
due to increased Ca2+ reabsorption
but CALCITRIOL / VIT D INCREASES PHOSPHATE REABSORPTION from the INTESTINES (& Ca2+)
clinical features of HYPERPARATHYROIDISM and HYPERCALAEMIA
- NAUSEA, VOMITING
- BONE PAIN & OSTEOPOROSIS
- KIDNEY STONES
- SHORT QT INTERVAL (heart ecg)
- CONSTIPATION
- PSYCHOSIS & altered MENTAL status
clinical features of HYPOPARATHYROIDISM and HYPOCALAEMIA
- MUSCLE WEAKNESS & CRAMPS
nerve function: - PERORAL (around mouth) NUMBNESS and TINGLING
- CHVOSTEK’S SIGN, spasm of facial muscles when tap
- TROUSSEAU’S SIGN, spasm when use BP machine on arm
- TETANY, involuntary muscle contractions
name of GHRELIN RECEPTOR
where is the receptor found?
GHS-R
GROWTH HORMONE SECRETAGOGUE RECEPTOR
on NPY / AgRP neurones in the
HYPOTHALAMIC ARCUATE NUCLEUS (key area in hypothalamus for regulation of appetite)
(ghrelin crosses blood-brain barrier)
Hormones for SATIETY / DECREASE FOOD INTAKE (Anorexigenic)
- LEPTIN
- INSULIN
- GLP-1
- PYY (peptide YY)
- CCK (choleocystokinin)
- PANCREATIC POLYPEPTIDE
which hormone activates NEURONS in PVN and AMYGLADA
GLP-1
where are INSULIN RECEPTORS most highly expressed
OLFACTORY BULB & HYPOTHALAMIC ARCUATE NUCLEUS
to DECREASE FOOD INTAKE what does LEPTIN and GLP-1 stimulate in Arcuate nucleus
POMC (alpha MSH release) CART Neurotensin
(POMC cleaved by PC1/PC2 into MC4)
- activates MC4 (MELANOCORTIN 4) RECEPTOR and CART RECEPTOR
(alpha-MSH : alpha melanocortin-stimulating hormone)
where can you find STROMOVASCULAR CELLS
ADIPOSE tissue alongside Adipocytes (20-40%)
contain
- adipocyte precursors
- vascular cells
- immune cells
- nerve cells
- fibroblasts
LEPTIN is a small peptide with how many amino acids?
encoded by which gene?
Receptor?
167 aa
LEP / Ob gene
ObRb receptor in hypothalamus (arc)
hormone released from Adipose that INCREASES INSULIN SENSITIVITY (decreases insulin resistance)
what stimulates secretion of it
ADIPONECTIN
- excretion/secretion diminished in obesity
(high adipose tissue means less adiponectin)
THIAZOLIDINEDIONES stimulate
WHITE ADIPOSE TISSUE for:
BROWN ADIPOSE TISSUE for:
WAT structure:
BAT structure:
WAT: STORES ENERGY (lipids)
& secretes signalling factors that regulate appetite and energy - LEPTIN, ADIPONECTIN
BAT: GENERATES BODY HEAT
WAT: SINGLE, LARGE Fat Droplet
BAT: SMALL Fat Droplets with IRON-RICH MITOCHONDRIA (brown appearance)
name of MC4 AGONIST to reduce body weight in MC4 Deficiency
name of GLP-1 AGONIST to reduce body weight in obesity
SETMELANOTIDE
SEMOGLUTIDE
most of the enzymes in STEROIDOGENESIS pathway are part of the CYP450 enzyme family.
name of the Cholesterol Side-Chain Cleavage enzyme that cleaves Cholesterol side chain to form Pregnenolone
(most enzymes in SER)
CYP11A
which enzyme converts Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) into Androstenedione
3-BETA HSD
(also converts pregnenolone to progesterone)
TESTOSTERONE is converted into its more Potent form DIYDROTESTOSTERONE by which enzyme
5-ALPHA REDUCTASE
3 estrogens: Estrone, Estradiol, Estriol
TESTOSTERONE (A Ring) is aromatised by AROMATASE enzyme into which form of ESTROGEN?
Androstenedione can directly be aromatised into which Estrogen type?
Testosterone -> ESTRADIOL (main type)
(-> Estriol)
Androstenedione -> Estrone
(-> Estriol)
which Testicular cell secretes Inhibin for negative feedback of FSH
Sertoli Cells (nurse cells)
which Ovarian cell secretes Inhibin and Activin for negative and positive feedback of FSH
GRANULOSA cells
LH and FSH.
which one produces TESTOSTERONE (Androgens) and where does it act on?
which one produces ESTROGENS and where?
Testosterone: LH
- Leydig cells (males)
- Theca Interna cells (female)
Estrogens: FSH
- Granulosa cells (females)
- sertoli cells (males)
(also secreted from corpus luteum & placenta)
how long are the FOLLICULAR and LUTEAL phases of the MENSTRUAL cycle
which hormones dominate each phase
Follicular: 14-21 days varies
(menses first 4-5 days)
ovulation (around day 14)
Luteal: fixed 14 days
Follicular: Oestrogen
(FSH causes oestrogen peak -> LH surge)
Luteal: Progesterone (oestrogen increase from CL, flat LH, FSH)
AROMATASE
where is it present?
deficiency caused by Mutation of which gene (causing overproduction of testosterone and estrogen deficiency)
- SKIN, BONE, BRAIN, ADIPOSE TISSUE, VASCULAR ENDOTHELIUM, ENDOMETRIUM, GONADS, PLACENTA
- CYP19A1
Right ADRENAL Vein drains into:
Left ADRENAL Vein drains into:
right: IVC
left: LEFT RENAL VEIN
