Race

Question 1

Legalisation

Answer 1

The opportunity for illegal immigrants to gain citizenship - criticised by the right on the grounds that it amounts to rewarding law-breakers, and sends a message to future illegals could expect the same treatment - Included in the Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act (2006/07) and to some extent in the DREAM Act.

Question 2

Guest Workers

Answer 2

People in the US legitimately on a visa, but who have no prospects of citizenship - they will only be allowed to remain in the US whilst they are in employment - criticised from the left, as it might lead to exploitation of the workers by the firms on which they depend, and from the right on the grounds that flows of cheap labour would push wages down for Americans, especially in the context of a recession/slow recovery - Included in the Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act (2006/07).

Question 3

DREAM Act

Answer 3

A piece of legislation first introduced in Congress in 2001, which would have given young illegal immigrants the opportunity to obtain permanent residency if they met various conditions, and displayed “good moral character.” Re-introduced in 2009 under Obama, who endorsed the bill. Criticised from the right for the same reasons as legalisation, and from the left as it only dealt with a small portion of illegal immigrants in the US, falling short of the radical reforms promised by Obama during his candidacy.

Question 4

Jim Crow Laws

Answer 4

A series of laws enacted after the reconstruction period in the Southern states, mandating racial segregation of public facilities, e.g. Mississippi banned the publication of any material supporting racial equality, Florida instituted a year’s jail sentence for being part of an interracial couple, Texas introduced compulsory segregation of schools in 1925. Jim Crow laws existed from roughly 1890 until 1965.

Question 5

Affirmative Action

Answer 5

A set of policies designed to advantage a particular group in society, in order to correct preexisting social inequalities. The term is most often used to refer to racial minority groups, in situations such as university admissions and employment.

Question 6

Reasons for Racial Inequality - Population Movement/Housing Discrimination

Answer 6

The influx of rural African Americans and Latinos into large cities during WWII created a housing shortage - this precipitated a “white flight” into the suburbs, upon the return of overwhelmingly white veterans at the end of the war - this, combined with subtle discrimination preventing middle-class African Americans from purchasing houses in the suburbs, essentially created black ghettos in the inner-cities.

Question 7

Reasons for Racial Inequality - Poor Educational and Economic Opportunities

Answer 7

The legacy of past discrimination left a large gap between the educational and economic performance of different races, making it more likely that future generations would reflect this trend. The problem of educational disparity was worsened by the fact that school funding was highly localised - rich, white areas would pay more tax and therefore have access to better schools, a problem worsened by the decline of urban manufacturing jobs in the 60s, 70s and 80s.

Question 8

Reasons for Racial Inequality - Family Breakdown, Crime and Drug Use

Answer 8

African Americans were left with few opportunities to improve their lives, as they were affected by many of the problems generally prevalent in poor communities, especially with the worsening quality of inner-city life - the Kerner Report (1968) essentially predicted the Crack Cocaine epidemic of the 80s and 90s.

Question 9

The Kerner Report

Answer 9

A report published in 1968 by the National Advisory Committee on Civil Disorder, which was set up in 1967 by Johnson, via executive order. The report addressed the reasons for the recent riots in Los Angeles, Detroit and Washington, DC, and by extension, the wider reasons and solutions for racial inequality in the US.

Question 10

Solutions for Racial Inequality - Improve Urban Housing

Answer 10

Proposed that the federal government ought to build 6 million new houses in urban areas, as well as introducing legislation to prevent housing discrimination.

Question 11

Solutions for Racial Inequality - Job Training

Answer 11

Training should be provided to poor African Americans in order to help them adapt to the changing economic landscape of the US.

Question 12

Solutions for Racial Inequality - Tax Incentives

Answer 12

The government should provide tax incentives for firms to set up in inner cities, in order to improve job prospects in those areas.

Question 13

Solutions for Racial Inequality - Public Sector Jobs

Answer 13

In order to compensate for poor public services in the inner cities, the government should create 1 million public sector jobs - this would have the twofold effect of job creation and improvement of public services.

Question 14

Solutions for Racial Inequality - Workplace Discrimination

Answer 14

The government should introduce legislation to combat discrimination in the workplace, and to prevent institutions such as all-white unions from excluding African Americans and Latinos from employment.

Question 15

Problems with the Kerner Report’s recommendations

Answer 15

The commission had no power to enforce its recommendations - it relied on concurrence from the President and Congress, as well as a lenient Supreme Court, as some might come into conflict with the equal protection clause of the 14th Amendment.

Question 16

Griggs v. Duke Power Company

Answer 16

1971 - ruled that the company’s employment criteria were not solely based in ability to perform the job - it required a high-school diploma for certain jobs, which was unnecessary, which discriminated against African Americans, who were less likely to have one, thus violating the equal protection clause of the 14th Amendment.

Question 17

Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenberg Board of Education

Answer 17

1971 - ruled that it was constitutional to bus students between school districts in order to create more integrated high school classes and bring about equal education for all.

Question 18

Milliken v. Bradley

Answer 18

1974 - ruled that it was illegal to bus students across district lines, if the lines in question were not drawn with racist intent - limited Swann and limited busing as an affirmative action strategy.

Question 19

Regents of the University of California v. Bakke

Answer 19

1978 - ruled that the use of quotas in university admissions is unconstitutional under the 14th Amendment, thus outlawing it as an AA strategy, but that race could still be used as a criterion.

Question 20

Shaw v. Reno

Answer 20

1993 - ruled that it is illegal to redraw district boundaries purely on the basis of race, as stated in to Voting Rights Act (1965) - e.g. Texas 2003 redistricting struck down. However, held that in states such as South Carolina, where the majority of Democratic voters are black, and the majority of Republican voters are white, redistricting can be justified on the grounds of party affiliation rather than race.

Question 21

Hunt v. Cromartie

Answer 21

1999 - reinforced Shaw v. Reno by finding that North Carolina’s heavily African American 12th District was justified on a party rather than racial basis.

Question 22

Grutter v. Bollinger

Answer 22

2003 - Ruled that race could be used as a factor in university admissions without violating the 14th Amendment, overturning Hopwood, on the basis that the University of Michigan Law School’s policy was helpful in “furthering a compelling interest in obtaining that educational benefits that flow from a diverse student body.” Set a time limit on AA of 25 years, theoretically making it illegal after 2028.

Question 23

Gratz v. Bollinger

Answer 23

2003 - ruled that the University of Michigan’s admissions process was unconstitutional as it placed more weight on race than academic performance. An attorney who filed an amicus brief in Grutter stated that the cumulative effect of Bakke, Grutter and Gratz was to remove the legal right of people to have any demographic characteristic taken favourably into account on their behalf, but an employer has the right to consider the goals of the organisation and the interests of American society when making decisions.

Question 24

Ricci v. Stefano

Answer 24

2009 - 20 (19 white, 1 Hispanic) firefighters from New Haven, Connecticut alleged that they had passed their promotion test, but had been denied their promotion as no African Americans had passed the test. This was ruled to violate the Civil Rights Act (1964), and the department’s policy was struck down.

Question 25

Arguments in favour of AA - It has been a success

Answer 25

AA has clearly had a positive impact on US society, with African Americans and Hispanics having become wealthier, better-educate and better-represented in Congress. If it has not been fully successful, that is because it needs more time.

Question 26

Arguments in favour of AA - Racism still exists

Answer 26

Racial profiling is evidence that racism still exists in US society - AA helps to break down social barriers between races, and undermines the assumptions on which racism is based, by promoting diversity at work and in education. By increasing Congressional representation of ethnic minorities, AA allows for a stronger anti-racist voice in politics.

Question 27

Arguments in favour of AA - Anti-poverty campaigns do not go far enough

Answer 27

The fundamental problem of race relations in the US is not that minority groups are poorer, but that they have a smaller chance of success, both educationally and economically - AA tackles the root cause of racial inequality.

Question 28

Arguments in favour of AA - America is still de facto segregated

Answer 28

In cities like Baltimore, Atlanta and St Louis, many schools are still as mono-ethnic as they were before Brown. AA will correct this by creating diversity and building bridges between communities.

Question 29

Arguments in favour of AA - It is economically efficient

Answer 29

Racial inequality is inefficient, as it leaves a major resource (minority workers) unexploited, which is detrimental to the US economy. AA allows talented African Americans and Hispanics to fulfill their potential, by giving them access to degrees, and other opportunities.

Question 30

Arguments in favour of AA - It is a form of reparations for slavery

Answer 30

The US government is responsible for setting African Americans back socially and economically by their endorsement of slavery. It is too impractical to make cash payments as reparations, and the next best thing would be to recognise the inequalities that exist and make efforts to correct them, as AA does.

Question 31

Criticism of AA - Violates the 14th Amendment

Answer 31

AA, by using positive discrimination, inherently violates the equal protection clause, no matter how small a factor race is.

Question 32

Criticism of AA - It is inefficient

Answer 32

AA most benefits the existing African American middle class, rather than effectively creating a new one - already well-educated children will benefit just as much, if not more than disadvantaged children.

Question 33

Criticism of AA - It is ineffective

Answer 33

Over 40 years after its introduction, AA has clearly failed - gaps in employment, education and wages have not closed. Critics argue that it is perverse to continue with a failing policy, and that alternatives should be considered, such as class-based response, or the encouragement of minorities to develop their own social/cultural capital.

Question 34

Criticism of AA - It is no longer needed

Answer 34

With the advent of the black middle class, and the success of certain African American individuals (Oprah, Barack Obama), it is clearly now possible for people from ethnic minorities to succeed in the US - therefore, AA is no longer needed.

Question 35

Criticism of AA - It creates a “dependency culture”

Answer 35

African Americans will actually be damaged by AA, as they will become dependent on it, and thus will fail to develop the attitude and motivation required to succeed unaided - this is a similar rationale to that behind benefit cuts.

Question 36

Criticism of AA - Model Minorities

Answer 36

The success of certain ethnic minority groups, such as Asian Americans, Cuban Americans, and more recent immigrants from Africa, shows that it is possible for minority groups to achieve social advancement in the US unaided. It is argued that the culture of these groups, which often focuses on the importance of education, creates social capital which may be used to boost individuals’ chances of success. Therefore, African Americans ought to look to themselves, rather than the government, for aid.

Question 37

Criticism of AA - Perpetuates Racial Divisions

Answer 37

By taking race into account, AA makes it clear that race does matter, undermining the message that race is an outdated method of dividing society. Secondly, it may create resentment amongst white and Asian Americans that a student from the same neighbourhood as them might get preferential treatment on account of the colour of their skin.

Question 38

AA - Rugged Individualist Critique

Answer 38

AA is un-American and contrary to the founding principles of the US - people ought to be rewarded only for their own efforts and should not be given any assistance by the government. This view would be advanced by some Republicans, as well as the Tea Party and the Libertarian Party - these groups would advocate a “no excuses” approach, citing the success of model minorities, especially those who are themselves black, such as Nigerian Americans.

Question 39

AA - Radical Left Critique

Answer 39

AA does not go far enough - it is too weak a response to the entrenched racial inequality that is clearly present in the US. Those who support this view would advocate a more radical form of compensation for the damage done by slavery, such as a fund for tuition fees, or free healthcare, for African Americans - this view does not oppose AA, but rather the form that it has taken. This view is extremely rare in US politics, partly due to the impracticality and expensiveness of such a program.

Question 40

Ethnic Breakdown of the US

Answer 40

White: 72%
White (Non-Hispanic): 64%
African American: 13%
Asian American: 5%
Native American: 1%
Hispanic (Of all races - most are white): 16%

Question 41

Congress in 1970 (House/Senate)

Answer 41

Non-Hispanic White: 419/96
African American: 9/1
Asian American: 2/2
Native American: 1/0
Hispanic: 4/1

Question 42

Congress in 2013 (House/Senate)

Answer 42

Non-Hispanic White: 351/93
African American: 41/2
Asian American: 10/1
Native American: 2/0
Hispanic: 31/4

The current senate is the first ever with two African Americans - out of 1950 Senators in history, 9 have been African American

Question 43

High School Diploma - 1970 (African American - Hispanic - White)

Answer 43

34% - 32% - 55%

Question 44

High School Diploma - 2010 (African American - Hispanic - White - Asian)

Answer 44

82% - 61% - 90% - 89%

Question 45

Degree - 1970 (African-American - Hispanic - White)

Answer 45

4% - 5% - 11%

Question 46

Degree - 2010 (African-American - Hispanic - White - Asian)

Answer 46

20% - 14% - 33% - 52%

Question 47

Educational Attainment Analysis

Answer 47

Although the gap in High School Diplomas between African Americans and Whites has closed, there remains a significant gap in Degree-level education, suggesting that African Americans who are successful at High School are less likely than their White counterparts to go on to college - this indicates that AA has been unsuccessful in attracting more minorities to college. Furthermore, Hispanics remain relatively unsuccessful in High School, possibly owing to the fact that in many Hispanic households, Spanish, rather than English, is the first language.

Question 48

Median Household Incomes (2008 prices) - 1970 (White - African American - Hispanic - Asian)

Answer 48

$48k - $28k - $32k - $59k

Question 49

Median Household Incomes - 2008 (White - African American - Hispanic - Asian)

Answer 49

$56k - $34k - $38k - $66k

Question 50

Household Incomes Analysis

Answer 50

The gap between Whites and African Americans has actually grown since the advent of Affirmative Action, as has that between Whites and Hispanics, suggesting it has not been effective in closing the racial income gap. Meanwhile, Asian Americans have continued to reinforce their status as model minorities, with incomes far above those of any other race.

Question 51

Electoral Impact of Hispanics

Answer 51

10% of the electorate in the 2012 presidential election was Hispanic, up from 9% in 2008 and 8% in 2004. 71% of them voted for Obama, 27% for Romney. Hispanics alone made up Obama’s margin of victory in Colorado, Arizona and New Mexico. Analysts reckon that the GOP will have to make up ground amongst Hispanics in order to win future elections.

Question 52

Why do Hispanics have relatively little political voice?

Answer 52

Hispanics tend to be concentrated in non-competitive states/districts - Hispanics make up only 4% of the electorate in the 10 most competitive Senate races, which were key in assigning control of the chamber (2014 Midterms). 28% are under 18, compared to 22% of non-Hispanics. Only 69% are citizens, compared to 96% of non-Hispanics. Overall, only 49% of Hispanics are eligible to vote, compared to 74% of non-Hispanics. In 2012, turnout amongst Hispanics was 48%, compared to 66% for blacks and 64% for whites. Very few Hispanics live in many of the smaller states, which are over-represented in the Senate. Analysis suggested that the GOP could have lost every single Hispanic vote and held the House, and maintained a good chance of taking the Senate - this means the GOP has not been deterred from blocking immigration reform and criticising Obama’s executive order.

Question 53

Problems with the “Model Minority” image of Asian Americans

Answer 53

Not the same for all sub-groups - southeast Asians tend to perform poorly educationally and economically - 20% of Vietnamese Americans get a degree, along with less than 10% of Cambodian Americans. Household Income figures may be distorted by the fact that Asian households tend to have more people working - still trail Whites in median personal income. Whites earn $522 for each additional year of education - for Japanese, the figure is $438, and for Chinese, it is only $320 - the fact that Asian Americans have to be better educated to expect the same salary shows that they are still discriminated against.

Question 54

Terry v. Ohio

Answer 54

1968 - ruled that the use of stop-and-frisk does not violate the 4th Amendment, even if there are no obvious grounds for arrest, as long as the officer in question has reasonable suspicion that the person being frisked has committed, is committing, or is about to commit a crime.

Question 55

NYPD Stop and Frisk Stats

Answer 55

90% of those stopped are let go with no evidence of wrongdoing. 53% of those stopped are black, compared to 23% of New York’s population - 34%/29% for Hispanics - 13%/47% for Whites. However, former mayor Michael Bloomberg argues that since 90% of violent crime in NY is committed by African Americans, and Hispanics, it is justified that 87% of those stopped are also. NY specifically banned racial profiling in 2004. New Mayor Bill de Blasio has promised to end the practice.

Question 56

US v. Armstrong

Answer 56

1996 - ruled that it the responsibility of the defendant to prove that racial profiling has taken place, not that of the government to prove that it has not.

Question 57

Arizona SB1070

Answer 57

2010 - empowered the police to stop individuals purely to check their immigration status. Critics claimed that, with Arizona bordering Mexico, “reasonable suspicion” with regards to this matter could only be based on race, meaning that the law promoted racial profiling, which arguably contravenes the 4th and 14th Amendments. Struck down in Arizona v. US (2012), though the right of officers to ask for documents to be shown in the course of “normal police activity” was maintained.

Question 58

Criticism of Racial Profiling - Inefficiency

Answer 58

It allows crimes committed by other ethnic groups to go unpunished, as there is little focus on catching the perpetrators.

Question 59

Criticism of Racial Profiling - Self-Fulfilment

Answer 59

Racial profiling is a self-fulfilling prophecy - if resources are concentrated on a particular ethnic group, more criminals will be caught from that group than from others, giving rise to crime statistics favourable to the practice, etc.

Question 60

Criticism of Racial Profiling - Relations

Answer 60

Makes it very difficult for law enforcement agencies to establish good community relations in areas with high concentrations of ethnic minority residents, and these residents may view the police as racist - this will make it more difficult to tackle crime effectively in these areas.

Question 61

Obama on Race - Immigration

Answer 61

Gave temporary legal status to illegal immigrants with children who were born in the US, provided they have been resident for 5 years, and prevented the deportation of minors, via executive order (2014). Reintroduced the DREAM Act.

Question 62

Obama on Race - Civil Rights

Answer 62

Used federal attorneys to investigate potential abuses in the cases of Arizona SB1070, the Trayvon Martin shooting, and the Michael Brown shooting in Ferguson. Description of police actions as “stupid” in Henry Louis Gates’ arrest was met with severe criticism in the right-wing media - Fox host Glenn Beck accused him of being a “racist…who has a deep-seated hatred for white people or the white culture”.

Question 63

Obama on Race - Publicity

Answer 63

Publicly, Obama has largely avoided confronting racial issues when he has not had to - some argue that this reinforces the view that the US is in a “post-racial” phase, meaning that race is no longer an important issue, with racism being viewed as extreme and “un-American” by most of society.

Question 64

The effect of the recession on African Americans

Answer 64

African-Americans are unemployed at a rate 1.5-2x higher than whites. 1 in 3 African Americans aged between 18 and 24 are unemployed. Civil Rights leader Wade Henderson proclaimed that “this is the civil rights issue of the moment.” More than half of subprime mortgages were sold to African Americans, which is indicative of the fact that they are less likely to have access to federally backed alternatives.

Question 65

Demographic Changes

Answer 65

Since 1980, the Asian population has tripled, the Hispanic population doubled, that of Native Americans has increased by 62% and African Americans by 31% - the white population has remained constant. Estimates by the U.S Census Bureau suggest that “minority” groups will comprise 50% of the US population by 2050.

Question 66

Judicial Racism

Answer 66

39% of US prisoners are African American, compared to 34% white. Prison sentences for African Americans and Hispanics are 10% longer than for whites. If an individual murders a white police officer, they have a 92% chance of ending up on death row - if the officer is black, that chance goes down to 12%. Federal minimum sentences for the use of crack cocaine (tends to be used by blacks) are far higher than for powder cocaine (tends to be used by whites). However, it is important to note that many African Americans support harsh sentencing for the use of crack, due to its decimation of black communities in the 80s and 90s.

Question 67

Racial Divides over Ferguson Opinion (Black/White)

Answer 67

Felt the case raised important questions about race - 80%/37%

Felt that race is getting too much attention - 12%/47%

Thought the police response went too far - 65%/33%

Question 68

Hurricane Katrina

Answer 68

Polling of evacuees - 74% had a household income below $30,000, 93% were black, 70% disapproved of Bush’s handling of the situation, 68% said they thought that the response would have been swifter/better if the victims had been richer/whiter. Response by the Bush administration was generally poor - took 5 days to allow the New Mexico coast guard to assist, emergency services were held up by extra training sessions on sexual harassment and the history of FEMA (Federal Emergency Management Agency), extent of the floods was underestimated.

Question 69

Deportation

Answer 69

Over 400,000 people are deported each year - 83% without a trial - instead decided by the official in charge of the arrest. It is suggested that many deportees simply agree to deportation without a trial due to a lack of understanding of the situation, and the government takes advantage of this fact.

Question 70

Emancipation Proclamation

Answer 70

Issued by Lincoln in 1863 - declared that all persons held as slaves in the confederate states would be freed. However, did nothing for slaves held in states already occupied by union forces (Kentucky, Maryland, Delaware, Missouri). Made the freeing of slaves an official war aim, alongside the reunification of the states. Only 20-50k freed immediately, but around 3m were eventually as the union army advanced South.

Question 71

The Reconstruction - 13th Amendment

Answer 71

1865 - Formally and permanently abolished slavery

Question 72

The Reconstruction - 14th Amendment

Answer 72

1868 - Guaranteed citizenship for anyone born or naturalised in the US. Distributed representatives according to population, with African Americans counted fully. Gave all citizens equal protection under the law. Prevented those involved in the rebellion from running for public office.

Question 73

The Reconstruction - 15th Amendment

Answer 73

1870 - Granted African Americans the right to vote.

Question 74

Voting Rights Act

Answer 74

1965 - passed by LBJ, abolished the use of aptitude tests for voter registration, which had previously been used to prevent African Americans from registering - in Alabama, some were asked to recite the entire Constitution, for example.

Question 75

Civil Rights Act

Answer 75

1964 - outlawed discrimination by employers, desegregated public facilities and any private establishments “engaged in interstate trade,” e.g. restaurants, cinemas, etc. Authorised the US Attorney General to file lawsuits in order to enforce desegregation of schools.

Question 76

Presidents Supporting Affirmative Action

Answer 76

Nixon (Philadelphia Plan - endorsed the requirement of gov’t contractors to employ minority workers), Johnson (Howard University Speech - said that the US “had failed to find justice for the American Negro”), Carter (1978 Memorandum on AA - asked for the “vigorous enforcement” of AA)

Question 77

Presidents Opposing Affirmative Action

Answer 77

Reagan (1981 Press Conference - warned against the potential for AA to turn into a quota system), George Bush Jr (St Louis Debate, 2000 - spoke against the use of quotas).

Question 78

Clinton on Affirmative Action

Answer 78

Study on Affirmative Action, 1995 - endorsed the use of AA specifically, but rejected the use of quotas.

Question 79

Hispanic Voting Patterns

Answer 79

77% argued that illegal immigrants should be given a chance to apply for citizenship, compared to 65% of the population as a whole - drawn to Dems (DREAM), put off by GOP (Romney’s “self-deportation,” seen as unsympathetic towards those coming to the US and “trying to make it” - Senator Marco Rubio. Some now feel abandoned by the Dems due to failed immigration reform under Obama, but still oppose the GOP - led to low turnout in 2014 Midterms - 8% of electorate in those elections, compared to 15% of the population. Patterns differ between particular sub-groups - Cuban Americans tend to be more conservative - in 2008, 64% of them in Miami-Dade County voted McCain, compared to only 42% of the county as a whole, though Obama managed a majority of votes in Florida in 2012. Mexican are far more liberal - 78% voted Obama.

Question 80

Black Nationalism - IS Influential

Answer 80

• Some events associated with black nationalist groups still attract widespread support, e.g. the Million Man March of 1995, which was organised by Louis Farrakhan, head of the NOI.
• Some African American communities are profoundly seperate from the rest of society, a position consistent with black nationalism, e.g. Creole communities in Louisiana use a different language and have a very distinct culture, e.g. music and food.
• Media outcry against comments made by Jeremiah Wright, Obama’s pastor, which many perceived to be black nationalist in nature, suggests that the fear of black nationalism remains influential in mainstream American cutlure.

Question 81

Black Nationalism - IS NOT Influential

Answer 81

• Loss of credibility due to ridiculous statements made by senior figures, e.g. Louis Farrakhan alleged that flood defences in NO were intentionally weakened in order to “wipe out” the black population, and that Ebola is a “race-targeting bioweapon.”
• Million Man March was not necessarily about black nationalist issues, but instead about socioeconomic justice for African Americans. Those marching may well not have supported the black nationalist agenda.