quiz 3 (week 9.2 to 11.2) Flashcards
proactive vs retroactive interference
proactive: old pairing interferes with new; stronger if the old pair has a stronger connection than the new
retroactive: new replaces old; stronger if the old one was learned a long time ago
LTM classification schemes (3)
episodic vs semantic, declarative vs procedural, implicit vs explicit
deep vs shallow processing
deep: meaning-based processing
shallow: form-based processing
hierarchical network model
our knowledge and concept are organized like a hierarchy of categories; concepts related in meaning (semantic memory)
spreading activation
hearing/seeing one word also activates multiple related concepts/words (not always language-related); can spread from one layer to another
classic view of concept and categorization (3)
list of features, binary distinction (belong or not belong to the category), no goodness-of-fit (no good or bad member)
Jessen et al. (2000)
fMRI study of German words; tested concrete vs abstract words; implied that you can mentally “sense” the concrete objects even if the actual object is not presented (imagery)
Cooper and Shepard (1973)
tested mental rotation; task was to identify whether the letter in the testing trial was a normal letter or a mirror image of the letter; had another condition with different cue durations
Pardo-Vasquez and Hernandez-Rey (2012)
tested mental rotation like Cooper and Shepard (1973), except they only tested without cues; found that mental rotation is highly correlated with working memory capacity (related to visual rehearsal)
localization of mental rotation in the brain (2)
parietal lobe, premotor cortex
mental rotation process (4)
(1) encode, (2) indicate the direction of rotation, (3) mentally rotate the shape, (4) match (judge if the rotated result is correct)
Shepard and Metzler (1971)
showed that we can rotate 3D shapes; the larger the rotation angle, the larger the RT
principles of visual imagery (Finke 1989) (5)
implicit encoding of features, perceptual equivalence, spatial equivalence, transformational equivalence (rotation), structural equivalence
fusiform face area (FFA)
the part of the brain specialized for facial recognition; perceptual equivalence in visual imagery
Kosslyn (1983) spatial equivalence
found that the longer the distance in the image, the longer the scanning RT
Kosslyn et al. (1983) structural equivalence
found that the higher the complexity of the verbal description of an object, the slower the RT
moving from low to higher-level cognition (6)
sensory input -> perception -> attention -> memory -> reasoning/problem-solving/decision making -> language
the role of language in our cognition (5)
effective communication, survival (i.e., signaling food resource and danger), socialization, passing down the knowledge, verbalizing emotions and thoughts
Chomsky vs Skinner view on language
Chomsky: nativism, universal grammar, innate language
Skinner: behaviorism, reinforcement and conditioning, stimulus-response, behavioral studies of verbal behavior
lexigrams
symbol-meaning pairings
major features that differentiate human language from animal communication (2)
productivity of utterances, displacement (ability to talk about space and time freely)
linguistic determinism vs linguistic relativism
determinism: the form of our language determines our cognition (stronger)
relativism: different languages generate different cognitive structures; language influences, but does not determine, our cognition (weaker)
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis (3)
strong version (determinism): language determines thought and every aspect of our cognition
weaker version (relativism): language affects only perception
weakest version (relativism): the influence of language is “task-dependent”
Pirahã language example
they have only three words for counting (one, two, many); evidence for relativism because the larger the quantity, the larger the error rate
Winawer et al. (2007)
studied Russian vs. English speakers’ categorization of colors; Russians could use different words for “blue” despite the subtle color difference
Renzi et al. (1966)
studied the impact of aphasia on abstract thinking with the Weigl Sorting Test; found that left-hemisphere damaged but non-aphasic scored higher than aphasic but lower than normal and right-hemisphere damaged but non-aphasic; supported relativism (weak or weakest version)
Iverson and Goldin-Meadow (2005)
found two types of gestures in early preverbal development (supplementary and complementary); found a positive correlation between onset age of supplementary gestures and onset age of two-word stage
supplementary vs complementary gestures
supplementary: adds information to the verbal information; two concepts
complementary: redundant information; one concept
cross-modal vs phonological binding task
cross-modal: associate a visual with an auditory input
phonological: associate two auditory input
under- vs over-extension
under-extension: failure to generalize from one exemplar to others (being too specific)
over-extension: overgeneralize one word to all other members in the broader category
if a child has a working memory deficit… (4)
difficulty following verbal instructions, difficulty in reading, delayed vocabulary acquisition, delayed syntactic acquisition
Gathercole and Baddeley (1990)
found that higher repetition and shorter words facilitate learning
Kim and Kaiser (2000)
tested children with and without ADHD; found that WM and attention are important for sentence imitation and word articulation
benefits of being bilingual (3)
ability to figure out and describe patterns and rules (metalinguistic awareness), better executive control, better performance in cognitive tasks
bilinguals vs monolinguals in attention shift task
less perseveration observed in bilinguals (better inhibitory control, lower switch cost)
Krizman et al. (2012)
found a correlation between neural response to complex sounds and sustained selective attention; people who are proficient in multiple languages have enhanced sensory processing and selective attention
is language essential for problem solving?
no (but would help the thinking process), unless a task requires verbal skills
necessary for problem solving (5)
goal setting, attention, memory, experience, knowledge about the problem itself (problem-specific)
well- vs ill-defined problems
well-defined: clear goal/narrower scope; narrower set of actions; easier to play ahead
ill-defined: open-ended; unclear actions needed to achieve the goal; may generate some well-defined problems while solving the ill-defined ones
common strategies in problem-solving (4)
generate-and-test, working backward, backtracking, analogy
generate-and-test
a strategy in problem-solving; trial-and-error approach
working backward
a strategy in problem-solving; knowing what the solution should look like; performing the last step first; planning of moves
backtracking
a strategy in problem-solving; stepping back to track the root of the problem
mental set
one’s strategy/preference to approach a problem
functional fixedness
a fixed mental set for the function of an object
