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Biochemistry/Physiology > Quiz 3 - Cardio Physio, ECG, Acid/Base, O2/CO2, Chemical Reactions > Flashcards

Quiz 3 - Cardio Physio, ECG, Acid/Base, O2/CO2, Chemical Reactions Flashcards

1
Q

Epicardium

A

Outermost layer of heart, contiguous with visceral pericardium, simple squamous mesothelium that secretes fluid, supported by loose CT, contains coronary vessels, nerves, fat, ectodermal origin, contains keratins

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2
Q

Myocardium

A

Cardiac muscle, thicker in ventricles

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3
Q

Endocardium

A

Loose CT with smooth muscle cells, purkinje fibers, mesodermal origin, produces clotting proteins, contains vimentins

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4
Q

Mesothelium

A

Mesodermal origin, single cell layer protects body cavities and organs. Does not involve transportation of blood. Pleural (lungs), pericardial (heart), peritoneal (abdominal organs)

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5
Q

Atrium muscle

A

Thin epicardium, roughly equal myocardium and endocardium.

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6
Q

Ventricle muscle

A

Tiny endocardium, thick myocardium, thicker epicardium than atrium (mostly adipose)

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7
Q

Conduction system of the heart

A

Sinoatrial Node > Atrioventricular Node > Bundle of His > Left and right bundle branches > Purkinje fibers Nodes are modified cardiac muscle, bundle and fibers are conducting muscle fibers

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8
Q

Purkinje Fibers

A

Myofibers but larger than contractile muscle fibers, pale staining fibers, lack intercalated discs, don’t contract but conduct, contain lots of glycogen, mitochondria

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9
Q

Atrial Natriuretic Peptide

A

Synthesized by atrial myocytes, responds to high BP, acts to lower BP, Stimulates Na+ loss from blood into urine, relaxes vascular smooth muscle, prevents water retention hormones

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10
Q

Hypertrophy

A

Cells get bigger

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11
Q

Hyperplasia

A

Cells increase in number

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12
Q

Vasa Vasorum

A

Blood vessels that feed walls of large blood vessels

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13
Q

Tunica Intima

A

Innermost, thinnest layer, CT

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14
Q

Internal elastic lamina

A

Dense, elastic membrane that separates Tunica intima from tunica media

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15
Q

Tunica media

A

Thickest layer, contains smooth muscle, elastic fibers, connective tissue

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16
Q

External elastic lamina

A

Dense elastic membraane that separates Tunica Media from Tunica adventitia

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17
Q

Tunica adventitia

A

Connective tissue, nutrient vessels (vasa vasorum), autonomic nerves (nervi vasorum)

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18
Q

Aorta structure

A

Most of the wall is tunica media, smooth muscle cells synthesize elastic fibers to smooth out pressure pulses

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19
Q

Vernhoff stain

A

Stains elastic fibers

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20
Q

Azan stain

A

Stains collagen fibers

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21
Q

Muscular Artery

A

Thick, highly layered tunica media, regulates blood pressure

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22
Q

Elastic artery

A

Aorta, pulmonary artery, branches, carry blood to smaller arteries, tunica media has lots of elastic fibers, expand and recoil with systole and diastole

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23
Q

Small arteries

A

Contain up to 5-6 layers of smooth muscle,

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24
Q

Arterioles

A
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25
Q

Precapillary sphincters

A

Surround arterioles allow blood into capillary beds

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26
Q

Thermoregulation

A

High capillary flow = more heat dissipation, reduced flow = high conservation

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27
Q

Nitric Oxide

A

Released by vascular endothelial cells. Causes smooth muscle to relax, vasodilation

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28
Q

Endothelins

A

Released by vascular endothelial cells. Causes smooth muscle to contract, vasoconstriction

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29
Q

Continuous capillaries

A

Most common type. Endothelial cells linked by tight junctions

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30
Q

Fenestrated capillaries

A

Contain openings in endothelium that facilitate exchange. Found in kidney glomerulus, choroid plexus

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31
Q

Sinusoids

A

Have larger openings for greater exchange. Blood cells can squeeze through. Found in liver, bone marrow

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32
Q

Pericyte

A

Periendothelial cells. Critical for blood-brain barrier, small vessel hemostasis, contraction, phagocytosis, repair and regeneration

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33
Q

Transcytosis

A

Movement of big proteins, etc. through capillaries via vesicles

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34
Q

Venule and Muscular venule

A

Smallest of veins, major site of vascular permeability, particularly sensitive to histamine, small but less defined “roundness” than arterioles

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35
Q

Medium vein

A

Contain semilunar valves, have thicker Tunica Adventitia, small tunica media and tiny tunica intima

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36
Q

Large vein

A

Have thicker Tunica Adventitia, small tunica media and tiny tunica intima

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37
Q

Angiogenesis

A

Blood vessel formation, driven by multiple factors including Vascular Endothelial Growth Factors

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38
Q

Age and arteries

A

Elastic lamellae become fragmented and discontinuous, making vessels stiff

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39
Q

Arteriosclerosis

A

Hardening of arteries because of age, calcium salt deposits, thickening of TI

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40
Q

Myocardial Infarction

A

Blockage of Coronary artery kills cardiac muscle cells, scar tissue replaces it, blood leaks into epicardium

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41
Q

Electrocardiography

A

Records electrical activity of heart

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42
Q

Diastole

A

relaxation of heart chambers which fill with blood

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43
Q

Systole

A

Contraction of heart chambers

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44
Q

Ventricular filling

A

mid to late ventricular diastole

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45
Q

S1 heart sound

A

Lub, closure of AV valves at beginning of ventricular systole

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46
Q

S2 heart sound

A

Dub, closure of semilunar valves at beginning of ventricular diastole

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47
Q

Pacemaker cells

A

SA node, AV node, Bundle of His, Bundle branches, Purkinje fibers, have intrinsic rhythmnicity

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48
Q

Working myocardial cells

A

Most of heart cells

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49
Q

Normal Activation Sequence

A

SA node > Atria > AV node > His > Bundle > Purkinje > Ventricles

50
Q
A

Fast-response Action Potential - Plateau phase prolonged by Ca2+

51
Q
A

Slow-Response Action Potential - in Pacemaker cells, slowly depolarize in Phase 4 to automatically trigger AP

52
Q

Excitation-Contraction Coupling in Cardiac Muscle

A

Action potential travels along sarcolemma (plasma membrane) and into T tubules, causing Ca2+ to enter cells. Ca2+ triggers opeining of Ca2+ release channels in sarcoplasm. Ca2+ binds to tropomyosin, allowing myosin fibers to bind to actin and trigger contraction. “Ca2+-induced Ca2+ release”

53
Q

Cardiac Output

A

= Stroke Volume X Heart Rate

54
Q

Stroke Volume

A

= End Diastolic Volume - End Systolic Volume

Usually about 70-80 mL

55
Q

Total Peripheral Resistance

A

Sum of the resistance of all peripheral vasculature in the circulatory system

56
Q

Blood Pressure

A

= Cardiac Output X Total Peripheral Resistance

57
Q

Baroreceptor Reflex

A

Responds to change in arterial pressure by increasing or decreasing heart rate as needed

58
Q

Bainbridge Reflex

A

Responds to changes in blood volume. Increases heart rate when there is increased arterial presure.

59
Q

Normal Sinus Rhythm

A

When the SA node is acting as the pacemaker.

60
Q

Normal Heart Rate

A

60-100 beats/min.

Tachycardia - >100 beats/min.

Bradycardia - <60 beats/min.

61
Q

Electrocardiogram

A

Machine to measure heart’s electrical potential.

Lead - electrical potential difference between two electrodes

62
Q

P Wave

A

Atrial depolarization

63
Q

PR Interval

A

Atrioventricular conduction. (0.12-0.2 sec)

64
Q

QRS Complex

A

Ventricular Depolariation 0.06-0.1 sec

65
Q

ST Segment

A

Index of ventricular AP plateau 0.14-0.16 sec

66
Q

QT Interval

A

Ventricular Action Potential 0.3-0.4 sec

67
Q

R-R Interval

A

Interval between ventricular beats, varies with heart rate, used to calculate HR

68
Q

T Wave

A

Ventricular Repolarization

69
Q

ECG Abnormalities with MI

A

ST elevation

T wave inversion

Exaggerated Q waves

ST depression

70
Q

Dipole Orientation

A

If the + end of dipole approaches + electrode, signal up

If + end of dipole approaches - electrode, signal down

If electro

71
Q

ECG time scale

A

Each large box is equivalent to 0.5 mV and 0.2 seconds.

Each small box is equivalent to 0.1 mV and 0.04 seconds.

72
Q

HR in beats per minute on ECG

A

=60/R-R interval

73
Q

Lead 1

A
  • electrode on RA, + electrode on LA
74
Q

Lead 2

A
  • electrode on RA, + electrode on LL

Most closely paralells average dipole during QRS wave.

75
Q

Lead 3

A
  • electrode on LA, + electrode on LL
76
Q

Einthoven’s Law

A

Lead I + Lead III = Lead II

77
Q

Dipole calculation

A

Amplitude of a lead = (+) deflection + (-) deflection

78
Q

Augmented Vector Right

A

Perpendicular to lead III

79
Q

Augmented Vector Left

A

Perpendicular to Lead II

80
Q

Augmented Vector Feet

A

Perpendicular to lead I

81
Q

Atrial Fibrillation

A

No clear P waves, absence of isoelectric baseline

82
Q

Second Degree AV block

A

Type 1 and 2. Dropping QRS wave. More frequent in Type 2

83
Q

Third Degree (Complete) AV block

A

Dropped QRS wave, needs pacemaker immediately

84
Q

Ventricular Tachycardia

A

Deep inverted Rs repeating

85
Q

Long QT syndrome

A

QT interval elongated, can lead to ventricular tachyarrythmias, can be congenital, aquired from medications, or from hypokalemia

86
Q

Torsade de Pointes

A

ECG turns into big squiggly lines around baseline, twisting of ventricle muscle

87
Q

Physiological pH

A

7.4

88
Q

Bronsted-Lowry Acids/Bases

A

Acids donate protons, Bases accept protons

89
Q

Strong Acids/Bases

A

Completely Dissociate in solution. Ex.) HCl, NaOh

90
Q

Weak Acids

A

Donate relatively few of their H+/OH- ions. Ex.) H2S, NH3

91
Q

Reason for pH regulation

A

Proteins, ions, muscle contraction, etc. all rely on specific pH range.

92
Q

Carbonic Anhydrase

A

Converts CO2 to carbonic acid to dissolve it into the blood

93
Q

Ways to control H+ ion concentration in the serum

A

Lungs: remove CO2

Kidneys: Removes H+, Retains HCO3-

Buffering: Resists pH change (does not remove H+ ions)

94
Q

Volatile Acid

A

Can be released in gas form. CO2/Carbonic acid

95
Q

Nonvolatile Acid

A

Acids that are not released in the blood. Lactic acid, etc.

96
Q

Acidemia

A

High concentration of H+. Acidosis decribes conditions leading to acidemia

97
Q

Alkalemia

A

Low H+ concentration in blood. Alkalosis is term for conditions leading to alkalemia.

98
Q

pH regulation in Lungs

A

Increase in pH from 7.4-7.0 results in 4-5X increase in alveolar ventilation. Raised pH causes respiratory depression.

Lungs only deal with volatile acid

99
Q

pH regulation in Kidneys

A

Slow acting

Kidneys can excrete or retain acids (H+ or NH4+)

Kidneys can excrete or retain HCO3- or generate it from Glutamine

100
Q

pH regulation in Buffers

A

Bicarbonate: in extracellular fluid

Phosphate: in intracellular fluid

101
Q

Henderson-Hasselbach Equation

A

pH = pKa + log [A-]/[HA]

Buffers are most effective when pH = pKa

102
Q

Intracellular pH regulation

A

Low IC pH: Na+ gradient pushes H+ out and HCO3- in

High IC pH: Cl- gradient pushes HCO3- out and OH- out

H2PO4- buffer

103
Q

Respiratory Acidosis/Alkalosis

A

Hyper/Hypoventilation causes Alkal/acidosis

Involves lungs and volatile acids (CO2)

104
Q

Metabolic Acidosis/Alkalosis

A

Disturbances in HCO3 because of Kidney function or other systems.

Abnormal loss or retention of HCO3

105
Q

Mixed Acid-Base Disorder

A

Acid-base disorders are rarely just one thing. Respiratory acidosis can exist at the same time as metabolic alkalosis

106
Q

^G Free Energy

A

Released or consumed by a chemical reaction to perform work

107
Q

Free Energy Equation

A

^G = ^H - T^S

^H = enthalpy (heat) change

T = Temperature

^S = Entropy (disorder)

(+)^G decreases entropy

(-)^G increases entropy

108
Q

Anabolism

A

(+)^G

Going “Up” from precursor molecules to macromolecules

109
Q

Catabolism

A

(-)^G

From energy containing macromolecules to their end products with the release of energy

110
Q

5 main types of chemical reactions

A
  1. Making and breaking carbon bonds
  2. Molecular Rearrangements
  3. Free Radical Reactions
  4. Group Transfers
  5. REDOX reactions
111
Q

Condensation Reactions

A

Make carbon bonds, water is major byproduct

112
Q

Carboxylation/Decarboxylation

A

Addition/Removal of Carboxyl Group (CO2)

113
Q

Molecular Rearrangements

A

Change in shape of a single structure

Ex.) cAMP –> AMP

114
Q

Free Radical Reactions

A

Molecule containing an unpaired electron, highly reactive

Ex.) Dopamine can become a superoxide radical in right conditions.

Ex.) Vitamin E functions as antioxidant to neutralize free radicals by donating an electron, then rearranging its molecules to reduce charge

115
Q

Group Transfers

A

Adding or removing a functional group

Phosphorylation – Kinase

Ubiquitination – Ubiquitin Ligase

Acetylation – Acetyltransferase

Methylation – Methyltransferase

Hydroxylation – Hydroxylase

116
Q

How does ATP function?

A

Transfers Phosphate group.

Higher concentrations of ATP relative to ADP cause a greater release of energy.

Energy released usually by transfer rather than hydrolysis

117
Q

Protein Kinase A

A

Phosphate transfer drives signal transduction

118
Q

REDOX Reactions

A

Involve a Reduction and an Oxidation

Reduction: Load molecules with electrons (+)^G

Oxidation: Remove electrons from a molecule (-)^G

119
Q

Carbon Oxidation state

A

Reduced Carbons energy rich

Long saturated carbon chains

120
Q

Beta Oxidation

A

Conversion of long lipid chains into Acetyl-CoA for use in citric acid cycle and electron transport chain

121
Q

NAD+

A

Major carrier of electrons for REDOX transfer of electrons

Biochemistry/Physiology (10 decks)

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