Quiz 1- Lecture 1: Whole Brain Imaging Flashcards
What is Research?
A systematic and methodical investigation or inquiry into a specific subject, problem, or field of study with the aim of discovering, interpreting, or revising knowledge
What does research involve?
The collection, analysis, and interpretation of data to answer questions, test hypotheses, or solve problems
What are different forms of research?
Scientific experiments, surveys, literature reviews, and theoretical analyses
In essence, research is…
The process of exploring and expanding our understanding of the world by applying structured methodologies and critical thinking to generate new insights, validate existing knowledge,or address unsolved questions
What are the three types of neuroscience research?
Clinical (neurology, psychiatry, neurosurgery, and neuropathology), Experimental, and Theoretical
Experimental neuroscientists continue to lay…
The foundation for all medical treatments of the nervous system
The scientific process (4):
Observation, Replication, Interpretation, and Verification
Observations
typically made during experiments designed to test a particular hypothesis
Replication
(Any observation, whether experimental or clinical, must be replicated.)
Repeating the experiment on different subjects or making similar observations in different patients as many times as necessary to rule out the possibility that the observation occurred by chance
Interpretation
(Once the scientist believes the observation is correct, he or she interprets it.)
depend on the state if knowledge (or ignorance) at the time and on the scientist’s preconceived notions (or “mind set”).
Do not always withstand the test of time
Verification
Final step of scientific process
Distinct from the replication the original observer performed
Means that the observation is sufficiently robust that any competent scientist who precisely follows the protocols of the original observer can reproduce it
Successful verification generally means the observation is accepted as fact
Brain imaging refers to…
Various techniques used to create visual representations of the brain’s structure, function, and neural activity
Types of structural imaging:
MRI, CT (Computed Tomography)
Types of functional imaging:
fMRI (functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging), PET (Positron Emission Tomography)
MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging):
Provides detailed images of the brain’s anatomy, helping to identify abnormalities or structural changes
CT (Computed Tomography):
Offers cross-sectional images, useful for detecting structural issues like tumors or bleeding
fMRI (functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging):
Measures blood flow changes in response to neural activity, allowing researchers to study brain function during different tasks or stimuli
PET (Positron Emission Tomography):
Shows metabolic activity by detecting radioactive tracers, providing information about brain function
Types of electrophysiological imaging:
EEG (Electroencephalography), MEG (Magnetoencephalography)
EEG (Electroencephalography):
Records electrical activity on the scalp, useful for studying brain waves and diagnosing conditions like epilepsy
MEG (Magnetoencephalography):
Measures magnetic fields generated by neural activity, offering insights into brain function with high temporal resolution
Molecular Imaging:
Techniques like PET with radiolabeled tracers can be used to visualize specific molecules or receptors in the brain, aiding in the study of molecular mechanisms in diseases like Alzheimer’s
In the late 19th century…
Early attempts at understanding brain function involved post-mortem examinations and anatomical studies
Whose work in neuroanatomy laid the foundation for understanding the structure of the nervous system?
Santiago Ramon y Cajal
What was formulated by who (2) that was a pivotal development in our understanding of neurons?
Neuron doctrine; Santiago Ramon y Cajal and Camillo Golgi
Ramon y Cajal’s meticulous work using ____ allowed him to visualize individual neurons under the microscope.
Golgi’s staining technique
What did Cajal argue?
That neurons were discrete units, separated by gaps (synapses), and that they communicated through these gaps
What concept formed the basis of modern neuroscience?
Cajal’s argument that neurons were discrete units, separated by gaps (synapses), and that they communicated through these gaps
Who received the 1906 Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine for what?
Santiago Ramon y Cajal (1852-1934); His research on the nervous system
The brain includes…
different cell types, and subclasses of the different cells
Neurons are…, communicating with each other via…
the main signaling units; synapses
What are the two main subclasses of neurons?
Interneurons, Projection neurons
What are interneurons?
Local interconnections between neurons
What are the non-neuronal cells (3)?
Endothelial cells, Ependymal cells, and Glial cells
Endothelial cells line…
Blood vessels
Ependymal cells line…
Ventricular walls
Glial cells are (3)…
Oligodendrocytes, Microglia, and Astrocytes
Oligodendrocytes (function)…
Insulate neuronal axons for faster signal transmission
Microglia are…
the brain microphage with a hematopoietic origin
Astrocytes are involved in…
Numerous functions such as blood brain barrier, homeostasis, neuronal growth and neurotransmitter recycling
(Diagram)
Different types of neurobiological cell classes:
Subpopulations:
Subcellular locations:
Ependymal cells, Endothelial cells
Astrocytes, Microglia, Neuron, Oligodendrocytes
Axon, Dendrite, Synapse, and Glia endfeet
When was Electroencephalography developed?
Early to Mid-20th Century
Who developed EEG when?
German psychiatrist Hans Berger (1873-1941); in the 1920s
What did EEG allow?
What did EEG provide?
The recording of electrical activity in the brain by placing electrodes on the scalp
Provided insights into brain waves and conditions like epilepsy
When was pneumoencepahlography developed?
1940s-1950s
Who invented pneumoencephalography when?
How was it done?
In 1918, American neurosurgeon Walter Dandy (1886-1946)
Injection of air into the cerebral ventricles as an aid to clinical diagnostics
What did pneumoencephalography involve?
What was an early attempt at?
Involved injecting air into the cerebrospinal fluid and taking X-rays to visualize the brain’s ventricles
Early attempt at structural brain imaging
When was Computed Tomography (CT) developed and by who (2)?
When and for what did they receive the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine?
1970s; Sir Godfrey Hounsfield and Allan Cormack
1979; awarded jointly to Cormack and Hounsfield “for the development of computer assisted tomography”
What is Computed Tomography (CT scanning)?
What did it revolutionize?
A non-invasive technique providing cross-sectional images of the brain
Revolutionized the diagnosis of brain disorders
How are different cross sections created through advanced computer calculations?
If X-rays are sent through the body from different angles and registered when they have passed through the body
What did Hounsfield develop?
An apparatus in which clusters of X-ray beams sent through the body from different angles are registered when they have passed the body
What did Cormack develop?
The necessary methods of calculation
Computed tomography provides (2)…
Cross sections of the body, A basis for three-dimensional images
When was Magnetic Resonance imaging developed and by who (2)?
When did they get the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine and for what?
1980s; Paul Lauterbur and Sir Peter Mansfield
2003; “for their discoveries concerning magnetic resonance imaging”
What does MRI offer?
What did it become a key tool for?
MRI offers high-resolution images without the use of ionizing radiation
Became a key tool for structural imaging
Protons and neutrons in the atomic nucleus behave like…
Accordingly, atoms and molecules…
small spinning magnets
Accordingly, atoms and molecules assume a certain orientation in a magnetic field
How can a certain orientation of atoms and molecules in a magnetic field be dislodged?
By radio waves of certain frequencies that are characteristic for different atoms
By introducing variations in the magnetic field during the 1970s, Lauterbur and Mansfield contributed to…
Use of the phenomenon to create images of the human body’s interior
What (2) provides a basis for magnetic resonance imaging?
The incidence of hydrogen atom is measured, Differences in the water content of different tissues
1990s: Functional MRI (fMRI)
Researchers started using fMRI to…
This allowed…
Measure blood flow changes associated with neural activity
Allowed for the study of brain function during various tasks
Positron Emission Tomography (PET): Developed in the 1950s but gained prominence in the late 20th century
PET imaging involves…
The resulting _____ _____ provide information about…
PET imaging involves injecting a radioactive tracer, which emits positrons
Gamma rays; metabolic activity in the brain
21st century:
Advancements in Functional Imaging:
Continued improvements in fMRI techniques, including connectivity studies and real-time imaging
21st century:
Molecular imaging:
Development of techniques for visualizing specific molecules and receptors in the brain, aiding in the study of molecular processes in health and disease
Mammalian brains:
Despite differences in complexity, the brains of all these species have many features in common (Rat, Rabbit, Cat, Sheep, Chimpanzee, Human, Dolphin)
