QUIZ -1-6 Flashcards
is a non-homogeneous material made of mortar and stones or bricks
Masonry
Masonry is a non-homogenous material made of
•mortar
•stones or bricks
Masonry is a what material
Composite material
describes an extremely diversified system not only in terms of materials used but also of the constructive technique according to different historical and territorial realities, the local masonry materials
Masonry
As it is a ______, its structural behavior depends both on the characteristics of the single components and on their interaction.
Composite material
has been used since man gave up the nomadic lifestyle of a hunter- gatherer and began to build permanent structures for any of his domestic and cultural needs.
Stone
stone had been mostly used for its
• convenience
• endurance
• visual impact
Much of the history of the world’s civilization is recorded in
Stone
it is the only remaining evidence of past occupations
Stone
Stone is classified into three main groups based on their origin of formation as
• igneous rocks
• sedimentary rocks
• metamorphic rocks
Types of igneous rocks
• intrusive
• extrusive
• plutonic
Layering of rock
Strata
is the natural source of building and decorative stones
Rock
the solid part the Earth’s crust which is composed of inorganic substance-minerals
Rock
any piece of rock detached from the Earth’s crust
Stone
simply any natural material derived from rocks
Stone
the art and crafts of building in stone, clay, brick or concrete blocks with or without the use of mortar
Masonry
Types of rocks
• igneous rocks
• sedimentary rocks
• metamorphic rocks
these are rocks that solidified directly from molten silicates, which geologists call magma.
Igneous rocks
Molten silicates
Magma
these are formed when igneous rocks are eroded as a sediments under the sea or riverbeds
Sedimentary rocks
Fossils are often merged in this solidified layer.
Sedimentary rocks
these are made up of igneous rocks and sedimentary rocks of all ages which have been subjected to intense pressure and transform into a different rock
Metamorphic rocks
Examples of igneous rocks
• granite
• basalt
• pumice
• flint
• obsidian
• scoria
A form of quartz
Flint
Example of sedimentary rocks
• limestones
• chalk
• sandstone
• shale
• gypsum
• conglomerate
Example of metamorphic rocks
• marble
• slate
• quartzite
• gneiss
Do not include any fossil deposits.
Igneous rocks
Include more than one mineral deposit.
Igneous rocks
Can be either glassy or coarse.
Igneous rocks
Usually do not react with acids.
Igneous rocks
Are harder and more compact than the original igneous rocks.
Metamorphic rocks
Most are impermeable-they do not allow water to percolate through them having low porosity and high density
Metamorphic rocks
They do not contain fossils as fossils would be destroyed during the formation of these rocks.
Metamorphic rocks
Resistant to erosion.
Sedimentary rocks
Contain fossils of plants and animals.
Sedimentary rocks
Cover over 75% of the earth surface, while remaining 25% by igneous & metamorphic rocks.
Sedimentary rocks
Non-crystalline in nature.
Sedimentary rocks
May be well consolidated, poorly consolidated and even unconsolidated, depending on the nature of cementing elements and rock forming minerals.
Sedimentary rocks
Most of them are permeable depending on the ratio between the voids and the volume of a given rock mass.
Sedimentary rocks
In heritage buildings in the Philippines, the following stones are among those which were commonly used and were assembled mostly with mortar or binders.
• adobe
• limestone
• coral
• riverstone
• piedra china
• bricks
is from sedimentary rock which is a product of some marine mineral deposits including fossils, corals and other marine animals. The stone is quite porous and easy to cut and dress by hand.
Coral stone
represents the strongest, most used and most durable materials of the past, usually preferred for structures of the greatest importance.
Stone
Besides the advantages of stone, the ancient builders needed to solve two main difficulties namely:
• extraction from the quarry
• dimensioning
belongs to the geologic group of sedimentary rocks, which are created by accumulation of sediments along thousand of years.
Clay
Earth & Brick
The building methods varied according to the locations and cultures and the most ancient ones can be synthesized as follows:
• direct digging
• straw clay
• wattle and daub
• direct shaping
the first habitation were built directly in the ground by digging out layer.
Direct digging
clayey soil was added to straw ( the clay binds the straw together), and it was used to build several building components (brick, blocks and panels)
Straw clay
a bearing wooden structure was filled with clayey earth mixed with straw to prevent shrinkage.
Wattle and daub
an ancient technique that made use of a very plastic earth to model forms directly without using any kind of mold or framework.
Direct shaping
in a broadest sense is a workable paste used to bind stone or brick units together and build masonry elements.
Mortar
is a material used in masonry construction to fill the gaps between the bricks or stone blocks.
Mortar
Mortar is a mixture of
• sand
• binder (cement or lime)
• water
Ancient mortars
• clay and mud
• gypsum mortar
The first mortars were made of mud and clay, as demonstrated in the 10th millenia BCE buildings of _____, and the 8th millenia BCE of _____.
• jericho
• ganj dareh
The earliest known mortar was used by the ancient Egyptians and was made from
Gypsum
Gypsum mortar also known as
Plaster of Paris
Modern mortar
Polymer cement mortar
are the materials which are made by partially replacing the cement hydrate binders of conventional cement mortar with polymers.
Polymer cement mortar
The polymeric admixtures include
• latexes or emulsions
• liquid thermoset resins
• monomers
Strongly influence concrete’s freshly mixed and hardened properties, mixture proportions and economy
Aggregates
Consequently, selection of aggregates is an important process. Although some variation in aggregate properties is expected. Characteristics
that are considered include:
• grading
• durability
• particle shape and surface texture
• abrasion and skid resistance
• unit weight and voids
• absorption and surface moisture
is softer than cement mortar, allowing brickwork a certain degree of flexibility to adapt to shifting ground or other changing conditions.
Lime mortar
is harder and allows little flexibility. The contrast can cause brickwork to crack where the two mortars are present in a single wall.
Cement mortar
is considered breathable in that it will allow moisture to freely move through and evaporate from the surface in old buildings with walls that shift over time.
Lime mortar
allows this moisture to escape through evaporation and keeps the wall dry.
Lime mortar
Masonry techniques
• folded’ stone corners
• multi - facetted stones
• metal ‘block-ties’
• quarry marks
• moving large stones
• extreme masonry
• vitrified stone
• Maneuvering Protuberances’
• Mortise and tenon Joins
• Concrete in ancient structures
• Drilling in Prehistory
• The Specific Selection of Stone
Several structures show the blocks cut with an internal angle, so as to ‘fold’ the stone around corner’s. It is suggested that this was incorporated as an earthquake ‘preventative’.
Folded corners
Folded corners building example
• machu pichu Peru
• Luxor Egypt
It is often suggested that this design feature was incorporated into constructions as an ‘earthquake’ preventative. The fact that the constructions exist in such good condition after so long, in itself supports this idea.
Multi facetted stones
Multi-facetted stones building example
• Valley temple, Giza, Egypt
• Cuzco, America
Another construction feature commonly suggested as an earthquake preventative is the means used to join huge blocks together. It is believed that copper (or silver) was used at Tiahuanaco (below), both of which are soft metals. Some examples from the ‘Old-World’ (Namely Egypt, and Cambodia)
Metal block ties
Metal block ties example
• angkor watt
• karnak
• denderra
The megalithic builders employed the same method of splitting quartz, at different locations all around the world. This is not unusual, as it is probably the best method, and is still widely used today. By far the easiest way of splitting Quartz stone is to chip a series of holes into the stone, which are then packed with ‘wedges and shims’ (made of wood). Following the addition of water, the wedges expanded and the stone splits along the line.
Quarry marks
These small protuberances are found on the oldest (and arguably most sacred) Egypt and South American constructions. They are generally assumed to have functioned as ‘hitching points’ for maneuvering the blocks into place, however there are several examples where they have been left as if to demonstrate some other meaning.
Maneuvering protuberances
These small protuberances are found on the oldest (and arguably most sacred) Egypt and South American constructions. They are generally assumed to have functioned as ‘hitching points’ for maneuvering the blocks into place, however there are several examples where they have been left as if to demonstrate some other meaning.
Maneuvering protuberances
It is perhaps surprising to find that some of the earliest known examples of masonry exhibit a sophisticated understanding of joinery. This particular construction feature is reasonably explained as having followed the transition from building structures first from wood then stone.
Mortise and tenon joints
The designation adopted for the earlier building technique is _____ and derives from the dimensions of the units used.
Megalithic
was widely used by Egyptians and by Incas in Peru
Megalithic polygonal stone masonry
Megalithic walls constructed by
• Egyptians
• Incas
invented the concrete (so-called opus caementicium) and enhanced the quality of bricks (well-fired), whose size becomes standardized (large and flat) adopting different shapes for different purposes.
Romans
Examples of wall built by romans
• opus quasi reticulatum
• opus latericium
• opus incertum
• opus quadratum
• opus mixtum
• opus vittatum
In most ancient Greek buildings, the
most common footings are
Strip foundations
are rarely used but the widening of the foundation towards the base reveals a clearly mechanical intention which gives the impression that the
Footings with projections
The internal walls of the upper floors were usually of light “wattle and daub” construction called
Tabique
is a traditional Spanish technique using timber framework filled with wooden planks that are then covered with lime plaster.
Tabique
The greatest development in foundation engineering took place in
Ancient rome
Foundation failures can be categorized as
• stress controlled
• environmentally controlled
are those which are the result of the structure load on the foundation elements interacting with the supporting soil; including bearing capacity failure, settlement of improperly compacted fill, hydrodynamic or consolidation type soil settlement, or failure of footing element itself.
Stress controlled failures
are those which occur because of changes in the environment which affect the supporting soil.
Environmentally controlled failures
Example of stress controlled failures
• bearing capacity failure
• failure of footing element
Example of environmentally controlled failures
• swelling or shrinkage of soils
• downhill movement
• soil creep
• land slip
• groundwater
Foundation failures may appear according to two main factors:
• material
• functional
would include cracking or deterioration of the foundation materials
Material failures
involves distortion of the foundation which affects the superstructure appearance and performance.
Functional failures
Signs of foundation failure
• collapse masonry wall
• sloping floor/ leaning walls
• cracks in walls, floor and ceiling
• misaligned doors and windows
Reasons for foundation failures
• unstable soils
• improper drainage
• material deterioration
• leaks in dirt floors
• lateral movement
• unequal support
• drag down and heave
• change in water level
• vibration effects
may be caused by flooding, removal or addition of trees and landscaping features, or years of changing soil moisture.
Unstable soils
the surrounding drainage system size may be need upgrading or relocation.
Improper drainage
improper or lack or regular maintenance.
Material deterioration
may be caused by improper use of the building spaces or by natural seismic movements.
Leaks in dirt floors
Is possible when there is removal of existing side support adjacent to a building or there is excessive overburden on backfill or lateral thrust on the backside of a retaining wall.
Lateral movement
Footing resting on different type of soil, different bearing capacity and unequal load distribution will result in the unequal settlement or what we call it a differential settlement
Unequal support
When footing is located on a compressible soil, there is a chance of foundation failure by
Drag down and heave
can modify the dimensions and structure of the supporting soil.
Change in water level
Construction activities such as blasting, pile driving, dynamic compaction of loose soil, and operation of heavy construction equipment induce ground and structure vibrations.
Vibration effects
Types of walls
• load bearing wall or retaining walls
• non-load bearing wall
is usually constructed with sturdy, durable wall materials such as thick wooden beams, concrete, brick, or steel. The wall functions to hold up the weight of the house above it by distributing the weight down to the foundation.
Load bearing walls
which are common in outdoor spaces, are also considered load-bearing. I
Retaining walls
Structures that don’t hold up the flooring above are
Non- load bearing wall
Non-load bearing walls are used to divide an area into smaller portions and are sometimes called
• panel
• partition
• curtain walls
is a type of structural failure that can occur when a wall is unable to support the load that is placed on it.
Wall collapse
are most indicator of wall failure.
Wall cracks
Reasons for wall cracks
• plaster shrinkage
• damp and moisture ingress
• tree roots
• earthquakes and vibrations
• climbing plants
is one of the most common causes of cracks in walls and is the result of moisture loss as the plaster dries and sets,
Plaster shrinkage
As well as causing the signature dark marks on walls and ceilings, damp can also cause cracking. Usually these two symptoms will appear together and should be investigated, especially if they have occurred after heavy rain or flooding.
Damp and moisture ingress
are a common cause of cracks in buildings and homes. As the trees grow the roots expand outwards and often venture underneath houses which can cause subsidence
Tree roots
Any violent movement to a house or a building can cause cracks
Earthquake and vibrations
Having plants winding their way up your outside walls can look very pretty but the actual damage some plant life does a wall of a buildings.
Climbing plants
is the study of building defects, building decay and building performance failure for the purpose of formulating suitable remedial and management solutions; also a holistic approach to studying and understanding buildings, and in particular, building defects and associated remedial action.
Building pathology
MACROSOPIC DETERIORATION OF STONE OBJECTS
Surface deposits
• dark deposits/ staining
• efflorescence
• animal droppings
• vegetation and biological growth
Algae often causes black stains on roof surfaces and green stains on other building exterior surfaces such as walls, and building siding.
Dark deposits/ staining
It generally shows up on surfaces like concrete, retaining walls, stone and even stucco._____ is a crystalline or powdery deposit of salts. It occurs when water leaves behind salt deposits on the masonry surface. Natural salts and salt-forming chemicals can be found in materials, such as sand or gravel, used to make concrete.
Efflorescence
The corrosive effects of bird droppings can cause irreversible damage – defacing rooftops, walls, and other part of the buildings. Bird droppings quickly turn to salt and ammonia; after rain, electrochemical reactions speed up the rusting process. These acidic droppings eat away at paint, concrete and metal, and can eventually cause structural failure.
Animal droppings
While the vegetation itself isn’t harmful, it can cause significant structural damage to the building due to moisture and water.
Vegetation and biological growth
MACROSOPIC DETERIORATION OF STONE OBJECTS
Stone surface condition
• pitting
• pulverization
• desegregation
• blistering
• erosion
• deformation
• detachment
is a localized form of corrosion by which cavities or “holes” are produced in the material.
Pitting
is the process of applying an external force to a (solid) material of a certain size to destroy it and reduce it into pieces that are smaller than the original size.
Pulverization
refers to the separation of the constituent materials in freshly mixed concrete.
Desegregation
occurs on the concrete is when air gets trapped above the top surface.
Blistering
Deterioration of reinforced concrete structures can happen for a number of reasons. Physical and Chemical processes can impact durability and structural performance of the concrete. Defects in design, materials, workmanship, curing and maintenance can all impact the service life.
Erosion
is the result of physical stress acting upon an object, causing a change in the shape of that object.
Deformation
Of concrete can be caused by many factors, but the most common cause of delamination is corrosion.
Detachment
MACROSOPIC DETERIORATION OF STONE OBJECTS
Structural condition
• fissuring or crack
• fractures
• losses or disconnected parts
• open joints
a narrow opening or crack of considerable
length and depth usually occurring from some breaking or parting.
Fissuring
are Cracks in concrete are of common occurrence and they develop when stresses in the concrete exceed its strength.
Fractures
Type of fractures
• conjugate fractures
• curved fractures
Paired fracture systems, formed in the same time , and produced by tension or shear
Conjugate fracture
Occurs frequently and may be caused by textural and compositional differences
Curved fracture
