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BMS109 Phys/Pharm > Questions > Flashcards

Questions Flashcards

1
Q

What is the affect of parsymapthetic stimulation of the heart via the vagus

A

Hyperpolarisation of the cardiac muscle and overall decrease in heart rate

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2
Q

On which cells does VP act on

A

Principal cells of the distal tubule

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3
Q

What are the determinatns of diastolic pressure

A

Total resistance Blood flow from arterial to venous side

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4
Q

What are the types of causes of acute renal failure

A

Pre renal - outside kidney Renal - problems with kindey Post renal - downstream problems

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5
Q

Loop diruretics act of the thick ascending limb t or f

A

T loop diuretics block NKCC2 Prevent Na K and Cl reabsorption and thus water reabsorption

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6
Q

Within which bone is the pituitary gland located

A

Sphenoid

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7
Q

What is an obstrucitve disease

A

Leads to reduction in flow through the airways

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8
Q

During forced isnpiration which additional muscels are involved

A

Scalenes, sternocleidomastoids, neck, back and upper respiratory muscles

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9
Q

Define the renal threshold for glucose

A

Plasma concentration at which the glucose will start to appear in the urine of a healthy individual

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10
Q

How do kinase kinase linked receptors work

A

Leads to the activation of tyrosine kinase which results in protein phosphorylation

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11
Q

Deifne the ANS

A

Efferent division of the visceral nervous system

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12
Q

Does quiet inspiration involve and active contraction of muscles

A

F it is an active process

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13
Q

Do carriers of barters and gitlemans have a lower BP

A

YEs

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14
Q

How are sweat glands an exception to this rule

A

Use ACh and muscsrinic receptors at post ganglionic receptors

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15
Q

Why does K recycle over the apical membrane in the thick ascending limb

A

Not enough K present in the filtrate to maintain NKCC2

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16
Q

Do all blood vessels have nervous sytem input

A

Yes but only larger vessels have discrete nerves

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17
Q

The anterior = The posterior =

A

Adeno Neuro

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18
Q

What are the main types of mammalian hormones

A

Peptide hormones Catecholamines Steroid hormones

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19
Q

Does quiet exp involve the active contraction of muscles

A

No it is passive

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20
Q

What is the effect of the muations in the proteins which cause Bartters

A

Insuff. Na and Cl- reab and thus less water reab

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21
Q

What are the effects of ACE inhibitors

A

Reduction of blood pressure

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22
Q

What can be used in the long term to treat asthma

A

GLucocorticoids Longer acting B adrenoreceptor agon

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23
Q

In which layer of a blood vessel would you find the vasorum

A

Adventitia

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24
Q

What causes distal renal acidosis

A

Mutation in AE1 resulting in its presence in both apical and basolateral membrane ultimately leading to HCO3- being excreted in the urine

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25
Q

By what methods can we decrease the mean arterial pressure

A

Vasodilation - symp A1 adrenoreceptor antag e.g. prazosin Decrease cardiac output - sympathetic B1 adrenoreceptor antag e.g. atentolol/propanolol Ca2+ channel blocker ACE inhibitors

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26
Q

Where are venules and arterioles only found

A

In tissues

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27
Q

Is breathing an involuntary mechanism that cant be altered

A

No - it can be consciously altered

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28
Q

What are the only types of animals to have loops and Henles and why is this

A

Mammals and birds They are the only ones to have the ability to adjust their urine concentration

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29
Q

Name an example of a pharmacological compound which interacts with an enzyme

A

Apamin blocks K+ channels leaving neurones hyperpolarised resulting in the firing in many action potentials resulting in the sensation of pain

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30
Q

In what region of the hypothalamus are the osmoreceptors found

A

Supra-optic nucleus Para ventricular nucleus

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31
Q

What is meant by the shuttling hypothesis

A

Increased VP leads to AQP2 insertion Decreased VP results in vesicle reformation and removal of AQP2 from the apical membrane

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32
Q

State the equation of air flow in the lungs

A

V = Delta P / R

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33
Q

What causes asthama

A

Oversensitivity of the smooth muscle in the airways

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34
Q

What is the role of the pleural membranes

A

Prevents lungs from sticking to the chest wall

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35
Q

What are the net effects of vasopressin

A

Increase water reabsorption Decrease in body fluid osmolality

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36
Q

How is the B-intercalated cell configuration different

A

AE1 is present on the apical membrane and pumps protons into intersitial fluid

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37
Q

On which area of the nephron and which protein do thiazide diuretics work on

A

NCC Early distal

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38
Q

What is the average stroke volume

A

70ml

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39
Q

What is seen in patients with asthma

A

Hyperactive airways resulting in bronchoconstriction and decreased radius of the bronchi

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40
Q

How does foatal HB differ from adult Hb

A

Instead of two beta has two gamma No affect of 2,3-DPG Allows high affinity to scavenge oxygen

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41
Q

What are the subclasses of ligand gated ion channels

A

`nAChR - 4 TM domains - cation selective Glutamate receptor - 3 TM domains, P loop P2X receptor - 2 TM domains, ATP gated

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42
Q

What are the main types of capillaries

A

Continuous Fenestrated Discont/sinusoid

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43
Q

What type of mutation causes distal renal acidosis

A

Change of function

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44
Q

What is iC

A

Inspiratory capacity - The maximum volume of air which can be inspired after a normal quiet expiration

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45
Q

What are the names of the two vessels that link the lymphatic system with the CVS

A

Right lymphatic duct Thoracic lymphatic duct

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46
Q

List some of the causes of chronic renal failure

A

Diabetes Hypertension Glomerular nephritis PKD

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47
Q

State the equations for MAP

A

Disastolic - (1/3XPP) OR CO X TPR

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48
Q

Recall some diseases associated with high thyroid hormone levels

A

Graves disease

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49
Q

By what mechanisms can hormones regulate the levels of their own receptors

A

Up regualtion when low hormone levels - increased receptor, exposure of membrane, less breakdown Down regulation when high hormone levels - decreased receptor, concealing membrane, greater rate of breakdown

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50
Q

How does the aorta cope with peak ejection pressure

A

Smooth muscle in media replaced by concentric layers of elastic tissue that allow the vessel to expand during peak pressures

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51
Q

Define affinity

A

The ability of a ligand to bind to a receptor

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52
Q

What is the role of central chemoreceptors

A

Monitor conditions of the CSF and respond indirectly to to CO2 increases

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53
Q

Which AQP channels are found of the aprical membrane of the principal cell

A

AQP2

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54
Q

What effect does an Ai subunit have

A

Inhibits adenylate cyclase

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55
Q

Does the ammount of Na in the plasma determine the plasma volume

A

No the volume determines sodium content

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56
Q

How are the ions brought into the cell in the thick ascending limb

A

1 Na 1 K and 2 Cl Brought into cell through symporter on the apical membrane (NKCC2 symporter)

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57
Q

Is angiotenisin a small protein

A

Small peptide, 8 amino acids

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58
Q

What is IRV

A

Inspirtory reserve volume - volume of air that can be expired after a normal quiet inspiration

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59
Q

What are the two forms of diabetes insipidus and how do they differ

A

Central DI -problem with CNS which results in no release of VP Nephrogenic DI - Normal VP response but no resposne, deffective V2 receptors

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60
Q

What are the two main NTs of the ANS

A

NA and ACh

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61
Q

How can the RMM of proteins in the urine indicate problems with the filtration barrier

A

High RMM proteins - problems with filtration barrier Low RMM proteins - problems with reabsorption

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62
Q

Which region of the Loop of Henle is permeable to Na and Cl but not permeable to H2O

A

Thin ascending limb

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63
Q

What is the name of the enzyme which catlayses the coversion of Fe3+ to Fe2+

A

Methaemoglobin reductase

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64
Q

What can be seen in patients

A

Hyperkalaemia Hypertension Acidosis Pericarditus Aneamia Lethargy Nausea Vomitting

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65
Q

Do the combinations of subunits create different receptors

A

Yes

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66
Q

What to the agonists of B2 receptors in the bronchi cause

A

Bronchodilation

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67
Q

Explain the mechanism of vasopressin

A

Binds to V2 receptors on the basolateral membrane of principle leading to activation of a G-protein coupled pathway that leads to the activation of PKA - PKA phosphorylates vesicles that lie underneath the apical membrane resulting in the fusion of the two membranes and insertions of AQP2 water channels and subsequent reabsorption of wayer

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68
Q

What can be said about pressure and air movement during expiration

A

Pat < Palv So air moves out of the lungs

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69
Q

What is significant about the diameter of the capillaries and the size of the red blood cell

A

Red blood cells are larger

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70
Q

What is the role of ENaC in the principal cells

A

Na influx

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71
Q

What is the average resting HR

A

70bpm

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72
Q

What is the roles of the lymphatic system

A

Deliver excess tissue fluid to the CVS

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73
Q

How do antagonists work

A

Bind to the receptor forming a drug-receptor complex which prevents the agonist form binding whilst also not causing a response

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74
Q

Are veins more compliant than arteries

A

Yes

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75
Q

What is diabetes insipidus

A

Inadequet ADH levels –> polydipsia and polyuria

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76
Q

What is the typical systemic diastolic pressure

A

75 mmHg

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77
Q

Equation for compliance

A

Change in vol / Change in pressure

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78
Q

Recall some diseases associated with decreased thyroid hormone levels

A

Cretinism (children), myxoedema (adults)

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79
Q

What happens as a result of humidifcation of air in the lungs

A

Increase the P(H2O) in the air whilst decreasing the partial pressure of the other gas constituents - overall partial pressure maintained

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80
Q

What type of pharmacological compounds are hormones

A

Agonists

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81
Q

What is the effect of the balancing of the inward force privded by the elastic recoild of the lings and the elastic recoil of the chest wall

A

Intrapleural space with a lower pressure than the atmosphere

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82
Q

Name some examples of GPCRs

A

mAchR, adrenreceptors, opiate receptors, olfactory receptors

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83
Q

what is cardiac output

A

CO=SVXHR

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84
Q

What causes the transport maximum

A

Limited number of carrier/transporter proteins in the membrane

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85
Q

How does Gitlemans compare to Barters

A

Same symptoms however show hypocalcaemia (opposite Bartters)

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86
Q

Which lung volume cant be measured by spirometery

A

Residual volume

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87
Q

Name an antagonist of GABAa and its mechanism of action

A

Picrotxin - prevents opening of all GABAa channels thus preventing any inhibition of brain activity leading to seizures

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88
Q

Are venules open all of the time

A

No the pressure of the cells and surrounding tissues may close the vessel, all flow prevented below a certain pressure

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89
Q

Define the transport maximum

A

Where transport across the tubule has reached its maximum rate

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90
Q

What is the effect of alcohol on VP release

A

Inhibits

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91
Q

WHat can be used in the short term to treat asthma

A

Salbutamol - B2 adrenoreceptor agonist , bronchodilator

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92
Q

Two types of resp

A

Internal External

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93
Q

Name some examples of restrictive lung diseases

A

Asbestosis ALS/MND

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94
Q

Two BV associated with the kidney

A

Renal artery and renal vein

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95
Q

What hormone is released from the hypothalalmus that triggers thyroid stimulating hormone to be released from the troph cells

A

Thyrotrophin releasing hormone

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96
Q

What do the agonists of B1 receptors in the heart cause

A

Tachycardia - increased contractility

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97
Q

Give examples of molecules secreted from the posterior pittuitary gland

A

Oxcytocin vasopressin

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98
Q

Name an example of a pharmacological compund that interacts with a transporter

A

Digoxin –> inhibits Na/K ATPase causing a collapse in the resting potential of the cardiac muscle

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99
Q

Define uraemia

A

Classic set of symptoms associated with chronic renal failure

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100
Q

Name the accessory muscles of expiration used during a forced expiration

A

Internal intercostals Neck Back Abdominals

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101
Q

In a healthy adult what can be said about dead space

A

Antatomical dead space ~ Physiological dead space

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102
Q

What is meant by lung compliance

A

Measure of elasticity - how easy it is to inflate the lungs

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103
Q

State the equation for calculation of pulse pressure

A

Systolic - Diastolic

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104
Q

Explain how a fall in BMR or body temp leads to the release of thyroid hormones

A

Decrease in body temp causes TRH to be released from hypothalamus into the portal. TRH binds to receptors of thyrotroph cells in the adenohypophysis causing the release of thyroid stimulating hormone TSH traveles to the thryoid gland where it stimulates the thyroid follicles to make and release T3 and T4

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105
Q

What can be said about air pressure and air movement during inspiration

A

Pat >> Palv So air into lungs down the pressure gradient

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106
Q

What happens to K+ brought into the cells

A

Recycled across apical membrane via the renal outer medullary potassium channel ROMK

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107
Q

What are the constituent cells of the respiratory epithelium

A

Ciliated epithelium - cilia beat to waft mucus Goblet cells - secrete mucin which dissolves to create a fluid layer

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108
Q

What are the eight types of blood vessel

A

Large artery Medium sized artery Arteriole Capillary Venule Medium sized vein Large vein

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109
Q

How is Mg2+ reabsorbed in the early distal tubule

A

Apical Mg2+ channel brings it in, basolateral channel for it to move into interstitial fluid

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110
Q

In the proximal tubule, describe how glucose, AA and phosphate is absorbed

A

Na/K ATPase creates a low IC [Na] Coupling with Na influx (symport) glucose, AA and phosphate brought into cell at apical membrane then leave through facilitated transport proteins in the basolateral membrane

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111
Q

Name the different types of nephron and their role

A

Superficial - main role in reg urine composition Juxtaglomerular - fine tuning of urine composition (counter current)

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112
Q

Name an example of a nuclear receptor

A

Steroid hormone receptors - regualtion of gene transcription, slowest resposne

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113
Q

What ions is the GABA a receptor selective for

A

Chloride ion

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114
Q

Explain the mechanism by which the hypothalamus controls release of hormones from the adenohypophysis

A

Hypothalamus secretes releasing/inhibiting hormones which travel in the portal down the pituitary stalk to the adenohypophysis These hormones then bind to receptors on troph cells and stimulate the release of these hormones into the blood

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115
Q

What is the standard GFR

A

125 ml/min

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116
Q

How is CO2 transported in the blood and how does it influence blood Ph

A

HCO3- CO2 is weakly acidic but bicarbonate used as a buffer

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117
Q

what are the different regions of the pittuitary gland

A

Adenohypophysis (secretory) Neurohypophysis (nervous) Pars intermedia

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118
Q

Which Korkoff sound is diastolic pressure in the Uk

A

Fourth

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119
Q

What are the most common form of capillary

A

Cont.

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120
Q

What is PCOS

A

Polycystic ovarian syndrome, when lots of follicles develope instead of one. Can lead to insulin resistance (so insulin levels rise) can lead to weight gain, hair growth and reduced fertility

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121
Q

Describe the pathogenesis of asthma

A

The trigger, leads to movement of inflammatory cells to the bronchi and release of inflammatory mediators –> histamine released causes bronchoconstriction

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122
Q

What kind of neurotransmitter and receptor is used at pre ganglionic synapses in the symapthetic NS

A

ACh nAChR

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123
Q

Deffine efficacy

A

The ability of the drug-receptor complex to cause a response

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124
Q

Is the binding of one molecule of O2 sufficent to induce transition to relaxed state for all the sub units

A

Yes

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125
Q

In which ECF compartment is most protein retained

A

Plasma

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126
Q

What are the main types of triggers for asthma

A

Atopic - allergies Non-atopic - cold, air, infections, stress

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127
Q

For the given condition state the effect on the dissociation curve and the effect on the haemoglobin Decreased pCO2

A

Shift left Carry more

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128
Q

How is the renal threshold obtained

A

Extrapolation of linear region of the glucose excretion curve

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129
Q

Name some examples of loop diuretics

A

Furosemide Bumetanide

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130
Q

What is the result of a lowered lung compliance

A

More difficult inspiration, smaller change in lung volume per unit pressure

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131
Q

What AQP channels are found in the basolateral membrane of the principal cell

A

AQP3 AQP4

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132
Q

Which intercalated cells configuration is the most common

A

a-intercalated

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133
Q

What is a pneumothorax

A

When a puncture in the chest wall leads to Pat = Pip Results in collapse of the lungs to minimal volume

134
Q

WHich region of the LOH is permeable to to Na and Cl but not H20

A

Thick ascending lim

135
Q

Name an antagonist of a hormone that can be used as a drug

A

Clomiphene citrate is an antagonist of oestrogen leading to increased levels of FSH and LH

136
Q

For the given condition state the effect on the dissociation curve and the effect on the haemoglobin INCREASED PH

A

Shift left Carry more O2

137
Q

What two states can haemoglobin exist in

A

Tense - low O2 affinity Relaxed - high O2 affinity

138
Q

What four mutations can lead to Bartters syndrome

A

Mutation in barttin Mutation in NKCC2 Mutation in CLCK Mutation in ROMK

139
Q

WHat is the effect of increased Na+ rebasorption on K+ secretion

A

Less K+ secreted

140
Q

What is the name of the initial insulin precurrsor which is cleaves to to form proinsulin

A

Preproinsulin

141
Q

What kind of structure is a ligand gated ion channel

A

Pentameric assembly of subunits around a central pore

142
Q

Name an agonist and antagonist of the nAChRs

A

Ag - nicotine Ant - Curare

143
Q

What are the two main processes in urine formation

A

Filtration Modification

144
Q

Which barriers must gas cross for gaseous exchange to occur

A

Apical and basolateral membrane of pneumocytes Capillary endothelium inner and outer membranes

145
Q

Name an example of a pharmacological compound that interacts with an enzyme

A

Aspirin - inhibits the COX enzyme preventing the synthesis of prostaglandins thus minimising inflammation and the increased sensitivity to pain

146
Q

What factor is minimised in gaseous exchange is minimised

A

Diffusion distance

147
Q

What region of the nephron is responsible for Na Cl Mg reab

A

Early distal tubule

148
Q

What is metformin, how does it work

A

Treatment for diabetes T2, prevents hyperglycemia whilst not causing hypoglycaemia, increases glucose taken up by the muscles

149
Q

Which type of capillary are often found in surrounding epithelia and contain perforated endothelial cells

A

Fenestrated capillaries

150
Q

What are the stages of chronic renal failure

A

Mild renal Midl Moderate Severe End stage

151
Q

At what GFR value is there consdiered to be first stage renal failure

A

>75 ml / min

152
Q

Where are the preganglionic cell bodies of parasymapthetic neurons located

A

Spinal cord

153
Q

What is a normal insulin level

A

2-25 uU / ml

154
Q

For the given condition state the effect on the dissociation curve and the effect on the haemoglobin INCREASED TEMP

A

Shift right Carry less O2

155
Q

What are two BV associeted with the glomerullus

A

Afferent and efferent arteriole

156
Q

Define basal metabolic rate

A

Total body expenditure per unit time when at mental and physical rest but not sleeping

157
Q

What are the main functions of the resp tract

A

Humidification Filtration Warming

158
Q

What enzyme catalyses the conversion of angiotensin I to angiotensin II

A

ACE

159
Q

What would the effect of excreeting too little Na be

A

High Bp

160
Q

What are the two connections between the hpothalamus and pituitary

A

tract - nervous portal - blood

161
Q

Determine if the follwing are in the cortex or the medulla Bowmanns capsule Glomerulus PT Loop of henle DT Collecting duct

A

Bowmanns capsule C Glomerulus C PT C Loop of henle M DT C Collecting duct M

162
Q

WHat is TLC

A

Total lung capacity

163
Q

What are the effects of inslulin secretion in response to high blood glucose levels

A

Increased uptake of glucose into the cells Increased use of glucose Increases conversion of glucose to glycogen Increased protein synthesis and AA absorb Increases triglyceride synthesis

164
Q

Name one exception to antagonistic control by the ANS

A

Male sexual fucntion Symp –> ejaculation Para –> errection

165
Q

For the given condition state the effect on the dissociation curve and the effect on the haemoglobin DECREASED PH

A

Shift right Carry less O2

166
Q

Name an example of a thiazide diuretic

A

Cholorothiazide

167
Q

Which type of renal failure is irreversible and causes peripeheral neuropathy

A

Chronic

168
Q

In tissues undergoing active respiration, what is the effect on the factors that influence Hb affinity

A

Inc pCO2 and thus decreased pH as well as increased 2,3-DPG production and body temperature. These all result in a decreased affinity of Hb for O2 shifting the curve right and leading to a release of O2 inti the tissues, this helps to keep up with O2 demand by activetly respiring tissues

169
Q

What would be seen in a spirometry of a patient with obstructive diseases

A

Decrease in FEV1 below 80%

170
Q

For the given condition state the effect on the dissociation curve and the effect on the haemoglobin Decreased 2,3-DPG

A

Shift left Carry more O2

171
Q

What happens to Na brought into the cell

A

Taken out by Na/K ATPase on basolateral membrane

172
Q

What do the agonists of a2 receptors in the heart cause

A

Increased contractility

173
Q

Explain signal transduction via GPCRS

A

At rest GDP bound alpha has a high affinity for the beta-gamma complex Ligand bidning causes GTP to dissplace the GDP and the dissociation of alpha from the beta-gamma complex Both subunits then bind effectors triggering an intracellular signalling cascade When alpha hydrolyses the GTP signalling is stopped

174
Q

What is the name of the proteins responsible for Na and CL uptake from the lumen of the distal tubule

A

Sodium chloride transported NCC

175
Q

What 5 of the pancrease is endocrine

A

1%

176
Q

What is the role of apical ROMK channels in the principal cells

A

K+ secretion into the urine

177
Q

Two processes of ventillation

A

Inspir Expir

178
Q

How does the a-intercalated cell lead to its effects

A

H+ ATPase in apical membrane pumps H+ into the lumen of the tubule At basolateral AE1 exchanges Cl- for HCO3- which is removed from the cell and later reabsorbed THe basolateral Cl- channel allows Cl0 to recycle ensuring sufficient ions for AE1 to facilitate HCO3-

179
Q

What are the main types of receptors

A

Ligand gated ion channels GPCRs Kinase-linked receptors Nuclear receptors

180
Q

Define oedema

A

Blockages of a lymphatic duct that leads to impaired flow and the accumulation of fluid

181
Q

What are the two principal zones of the respiratory tract

A

Conducting zone - nose to bronchial tree Respiratory zone - alveolar ducts and air spaces

182
Q

What is the role of peripheral chemoreceptors

A

Peripheral chemoreceptors located in the carotid artery and aortic arch respond to inc CO2

183
Q

What is the result in an increase lung complicance

A

Harder to expire, loss of elastic recoil, larger change in lung volume per unit pressure

184
Q

Which type of renal failure is reversible, unchanged Hb levels,

A

Acute

185
Q

What occurs during filtration

A

Water, ions, amino acid, glucose and other small molecules leave the glomerulus and enter bowmans capsule

186
Q

Is there proportionally more smooth muscle in the bronchioles than the bronchi

A

Yes as no cartilage in the bronchi - so smooth muscle instead

187
Q

What is the role of a-intercalated cells

A

H+ secretion HCO3- absorption

188
Q

How is blood pressure regulated in the long term

A

Varying of blood volume by renin-angiotensin system

189
Q

Where is the highest fraction of blood situated at any one time

A

In the veins

190
Q

How doe humoral factors lead to changes in airway diameter

A

Adrenaline relased into the blood leads to dilation of the airways, histamine released during inflammatory responses leads to constriction of the airways

191
Q

What is important for regulating diameter of arterioles

A

vascular smooth muscle

192
Q

When would you find an intercalated cell in its beta configuration

A

During alkalosis

193
Q

Give examples of hormones that can upregualte receptors for other hormones

A

Oestrogen -> upregulate progesterone receptors Thyroid hormones -> upregulate adrenaline receptors

194
Q

List some of the treatments for chronic kidney failure

A

Phosphate binders Diuretics dialysis Transplantation

195
Q

What the main symptoms of glucose

A

Glucose excretion Polyuria Polydipsia

196
Q

What is the typical pulmonary diastolic pressure

A

8mmHg

197
Q

What are the two types of epithelial cells and what are their roles

A

Pneumocytes - flat cells, minimise diffusion distance Pneumocytes type II - produce surfactant which reduces surface tension

198
Q

WHat is FRC

A

Functional reserve capacity - volume of air in respiratory system after a quiet expiration

199
Q

Describe the structure of haemoglobin

A

Tetrameric structure conssisting of two alpha and two beta chain each containing a porphyrin ring consisting of a Fe2+ complex

200
Q

What is the average daily intake of H2O

A

2.6L

201
Q

what effect does an Aq sub unit have

A

Regulation of plc

202
Q

How does the parasympathetic nervous system control airway diameter

A

Vagus releases ACh acts on mAchRs and causes constrtiction of the airway smooth muscle

203
Q

What is the the cause of Gitelmans syndrome

A

Mutation in NCC - autosomal recessive

204
Q

What is meant by tubular reabsorption

A

Substances picked out of the nephron and returned to the peritubular capillaries

205
Q

Name some examples of obstructive lung diseases

A

Asthma COPD/Emphysema Chronic bronchitus Inflammation Oedema

206
Q

What are the effects of NO and how can this be used pharmacologically

A

Causes vasodilation Sidafinal (viagra) potentiates NO action and can be used to treat erectil dysfunction

207
Q

What is the approximate size and weight of the kidney

A

5.5x10 cm 150g

208
Q

What is the role of the loop of henle

A

H20 Na K Cl Mg Ca reabsorption

209
Q

How many TM domains are there in kinase linked receptors

A

1

210
Q

What class of drug is amiloride and how does it work

A

K+ sparing diuretic that blocks the ENaC channel leading to Na and H2O loss in the urine, used to trat hypertension

211
Q

Which centres are involved in basic respiratory rhythm and which aspect of resp are they involved in

A

Dorsal respiratory group - Controls the basic resp pattern, spont activity via signals to the inspiratory muscles Ventral respiratory group - controls forced expiration - inactive when quiet

212
Q

What can be said about the ion concentration of the blood and the filtrate

A

The same

213
Q

What effect does an As sub unit have

A

Stimuates adenylate cyclase

214
Q

Names of the classic endocrine glands

A

Pituiary Thyroid Parathyroid Adrenal Pancreas Ovaries testes

215
Q

What is the typical system systolic pressure

A

120 mmHg

216
Q

What effect does doubling the radius have on the resistance in the airways, and why

A

Resitance inversely propertiontal to the fourth power of the radius, so double radius = 16x decrease in resistance

217
Q

Give examples of molecules secreted from the anterior pittuitary gland

A

Gh, TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH

218
Q

Which kind of receptor elicits the fastest response

A

Ligand gated ion channel

219
Q

What are typical ExC fluid ion concentrations

A

K = 5mM Na = 150 mM Cl = 150mM

220
Q

For the given condition state the effect on the dissociation curve and the effect on the haemoglobin Increased PCO2

A

Shift right Carry less O2

221
Q

What is standard atomspheric pressure

A

760 mmHg

222
Q

Describe how Vasopressin is released

A

Hypothalamic osmosreceptors detect increase in plasma osmolality Activation causes depolarisation in neurosecretory cells Vasopressin synth in neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus then travels down the hypothalamic-hypophyseal tract where it is stored at the nerve terminals Opening of VGCC causes Ca influx and promotion of vesicle fusion and exocytosis and release of vasopressin

223
Q

What would the effect of excreeting too much Na be

A

Low BP

224
Q

How does 2,3-DPH influence Hb affinity for O2

A

Binds to B globin subunit results in decreased affinity

225
Q

Does changing the radius have a large influence on the flow of air

A

Yes

226
Q

What is the average daily intake of Na

A

150mmol

227
Q

Where are large molecules secreted from

A

Anteriro Adeno

228
Q

Do arterioles and venules run close togehter

A

Yes

229
Q

How are Mg and Ca reabsorbed in the thick ascending lim

A

Reabsorption of Na and K drive paracellular transport of Ca and Mg

230
Q

What is a normal blood glucose range

A

4-6mmol/L

231
Q

What is a typical blood volume range

A

4-6L

232
Q

Define a knockout

A

Complete deletion of a gene - no expression

233
Q

What is the effect of nicotine on vasopressin release

A

Increases vasopressin release

234
Q

What is distinct about the leakiest type of capillary and where are the often found

A

Incomplete basement membrane Found in sinosids of the liver

235
Q

Define renal failure

A

A decrease in GF that leads to an increase in serum creatinine and urea

236
Q

What is the name of the protein responsible for regulation of the CLCK channel

A

Barttin

237
Q

Which region of the kidney is responsible for the bulk of the reabsorption

A

Proximal tubule

238
Q

By what methods can we increase mean arterial pressure

A

Vasoconstriction - symp A1 adrenoreceptor agonist ie. phenylephrine Increased cardiac output - symp B1 adrenoreceptor agonists e.g. dobutamine Improved contractility - digitalis inhibits the Na/K ATPase

239
Q

What is a resrtictive lung disease

A

Decrease in forced vital capacity below expected value and decrease in peak flow

240
Q

What are the components of elastic recoil in the lungs

A

Antatomical compoent - elastic nature of cells Surface tension - generated at air-fluid interface

241
Q

Do lymphatic ducts contain valves

A

Can have flap and pocket valves as well as primary lymph valves

242
Q

What effects of thyroid hormones are similar to other endocrine hormones

A

Insulin and GH stimulate protein synth. Glucagon and GH stimulate glycogenolysis and free fatty acid synthesis

243
Q

Recall the pathway for the iodination of tyrosine to form T3 and T4

A

I2+Tyr–>T1 2I2 + Tyr –> T2 T1+T2 –> T3 T2+T2 –> T4

244
Q

Give to examples of ACE inhibitors

A

Ramipril, captopril

245
Q

Name the two sets of pleural membranes

A

Visceral pleura - lining the lungs Parietal pleura - lines the inside of the ribcage

246
Q

What are loop diuretics commonly prescribed for

A

Treatment of hypertnesion - decrease ECFV

247
Q

How is the role of b-intercalated cells

A

H+ reab HCO3- secretion

248
Q

What is TV

A

Tidal volume - volume of air normally expired and inspired

249
Q

Does blood have a pressure without the haert beating

A

Yes

250
Q

Which lung volumes add to give vital capacity

A

VC = TV + IRV + ERV

251
Q

Is the aorta an elastic artery

A

Yes

252
Q

What is meant by tubular secretion

A

Substances are released from the peritubular capillaries into the nephron

253
Q

Give some examples of NANC neurotransmitters

A

NO(g) Substance P ATP Vasoactive intestinal peptide

254
Q

Define acute renal failure

A

A drop in GFR lasting hours or days

255
Q

Name one pharmacological use for agonists of the adrenoreceptors

A

Salbutamol, agonist of the B2 adrenoreceptors causes bronchodilation

256
Q

What factor influences the resitance

A

Diameter of the blood vessel

257
Q

For the given condition state the effect on the dissociation curve and the effect on the haemoglobin Increased 2,3-DPH

A

Shift right Carry less O2

258
Q

What is VC

A

Vital capacity - maximum achievable tidal volume

259
Q

What is Bartters syndrome

A

Autsomal recessive disease results in polyuria, salt wasting, hypotension, hypokalaemia, metabolic acidosis and hypocakcaemia

260
Q

After what stage does renal failure become progressive

A

Mild

261
Q

What are some of the detrimental effects of increased blood glucose

A

Diabetic neuropathy - degredation of the perineurium leading to loss of sensation, gangrene and blindness

262
Q

What are the effects of mAChR agonists

A

Agonists include pilocarpine and muscarine Cause increased salivation, tear flow, sweating and decreased BP

263
Q

What are typical IC ion conc. NA K CL

A

Na = 15mM K = 100mM Cl = 4 mM

264
Q

Can the pleural membranes slide easily over each other and seprarate easily

A

No they do slide easily over but hard to separate

265
Q

Does the beta-gamma complex have any downstream effects

A

Yes can effect enzymes and ligand gate ion channels

266
Q

What do you see in the ascending limb

A

Na and Cl move out into the interstitial fluid

267
Q

How can the ECF be subdivided

A

Interstitial fluid Plasma Transcellular fluid (CSF, urine, stomach acid)

268
Q

Which region of the LOH is peremebable to H20 but not Na or Cl

A

Thin descending limb

269
Q

What happens to Cl- brought into the cell

A

Cl- leaves through basolateral CLCK channel

270
Q

How is blood pressure regulated in the short term

A

Baroreceptors monitor pressure

271
Q

What are the determinants of of systolic pressure

A

Ejection velocity Stroke volume

272
Q

What is the tranport maximum for glucose

A

375 mg min

273
Q

What can be seen in ROMK knockout mice to study Bartters

A

Salt wasting, polyuria, Cl excretion

274
Q

When filling the lungs with air what needs to be overcome before increased pressure leads to increased lung volume

A

Initial surface tension

275
Q

For the given condition state the effect on the dissociation curve and the effect on the haemoglobin Decreased temp

A

Shift left Carry more O2

276
Q

What is distal renal acidosis

A

DIsease state where the pH of the body fluids is too low resulting in metabolic acidosis

277
Q

What do the agonists of B2 receptors in the blood vessels cause

A

Vasodilation

278
Q

Define transgenic

A

Mutations that alter the amino acid sequence of a gene

279
Q

What is the name of the structure which co-ordinates the endocrine galnds

A

Hypothalamic-hypophyseal axis

280
Q

Name an agonist of the GABA a receptor and its mechanism of action

A

Phenobarbitone - causes opening of all GABA a channels in the brain leading to inhibition of all brain activity

281
Q

What do you see in the descending limb

A

Water movement out of the filtrate

282
Q

What is FEV1

A

Forced expiratory volume in 1 second

283
Q

Which enzymes are secreted by the exocrine pancreas

A

Amylase, trypsin

284
Q

WHat is the rate of oxygen supply reguired by the body

A

250 ml / min

285
Q

What is the role of surfactant

A

Surfactant increase surface tension in the samller alveoli allowing them to remain open despite pressure differences which would result in the flow of air into the larger alveloi

286
Q

What happens to the ventillation/perfusion ration as you move from the base to the apex of the lungs

A

Increase - both decrease resulting in a larger ratio

287
Q

What are the effects of neurosecretory cell stim

A

VP release, feeling of thirst

288
Q

What are the general classes of ligand protein targets

A

Enzymes, receptors, transporters and ion channels

289
Q

What is the affect of ecstasy on VP release

A

Increases

290
Q

What is the average cardiac output

A

4.9L

291
Q

Where is the kidney located

A

Between T12 and L3 vertebrae

292
Q

How does the sympathetic nervous systemcontrol airway diameter

A

Noradrenaline acts at B2 receptors causing dialtion

293
Q

What is the fuctions of the thyroid hormones T3 and T4

A

Increase the Basal metabolic rate

294
Q

List some examples of kidney diseases

A

Polycystic kidney disease - increased size Ectopic kidney - extra pelvic kidney Horseshoe kideny - fusion of kidneys Renal ageniesis - No developement of kidneys

295
Q

What happens during quiet inspiration

A

Diaphragm contracts and moves down, intercostals go up and out Increase thoracic volume causing a decrease in pressure so air moves into the lungs

296
Q

What factors can lead to increased airway resistance

A

Decrease diameter of the airways, through increased mucus secreations, tissue odema and airway collapse

297
Q

What are the main types of cells in the late distal tubule

A

Principal Cells alpha intercalated beta intercalated

298
Q

What is normal renal threshold of glucose compared to the normal plasma glucose levels

A

Renal th glucose = 16 mmol L-1 Normal blood glucose = 4-6 mmol L-1 (almost three times normal level)

299
Q

Explain the mechanism by which the hypothalamus controls the release of hormones from the neurohypophysis

A

The hormones oxytocin and vasopressin are synthesised and secreted from neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus, then then travel down the axons of these cells where there are released into the rich plexus of BV from the neurohypophsis

300
Q

What is the normal value of airway resitance

A

1.5 cm H20 S L

301
Q

What are the effects of thyroid hormones

A

Proteins synthesis, increased use of glucose and free fatty acids, increased lipolysis

302
Q

What are the main fludin compartments of the body

A

Intracellular fluid Extraceluular fluid

303
Q

What are the causes of the incisura (in the aorta) and the dichrotic notch (in arteries)

A

Closure of the valves governing the exits of the heart

304
Q

Why is there a need to Hb

A

O2 dissolved in the plasma alone isnt suff. to supply the tissues

305
Q

Give an example of an effector of the GPCR pathway

A

Adenylate cyclase - ATP–> cAMP activates PK-A

306
Q

What is meant by dual innervation

A

The way in which tissues may be innervated by both sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the ANS

307
Q

What is the role of the principla cells

A

H2O and Na reab Secretion of K and H

308
Q

Explain the regional differences in perfusion and ventilation in the lungs

A

Both greater at the base than the apex

309
Q

Is it true that anything that alters Na content will change the volume of the plasma and the blood pressure

A

Yes

310
Q

Where are receptors for catecholamines and peptide hormones found

A

In the PM

311
Q

Disadvantages to using the ROMK knockout mice

A

Major difference in that mice show acidosis but humans show alkalosis

312
Q

What is the difference between type 1 and 2 diabetes

A

Type 1 - beta cells dont make insulin or cells cant take up glucose Type 2 much more common tissues do not respond to insluin

313
Q

List the 5 korkoff sounds

A

First - lound tapping Second - Muting of tapping Third - Pounding Fourth - Muffling Fifth - Silence

314
Q

What is ERV

A

Expiratory reserve volume - The volume of air which can be expired after a normal quiet expiration

315
Q

Where is the basic resp rhythm generated

A

Medulla oblongata

316
Q

What is the effect of the secondary muscles of inspiration

A

Increases speed and size od insp

317
Q

What are the different types of chemical signalling

A

Endocrine - large distances, from gland into blood Paracrine - into the extracellular space Autocrine - chemical binds to receptors on the cell that secreted it

318
Q

How many Ach molecules must bind to an nAChR to activate them

A

2

319
Q

What are the affects of angiotensin II

A

Powerful vasoconstrictor leads to increase in blood pressure

320
Q

What kind of Nt is used at post ganglionic synapses in the sympathetic NS

A

NA Alpha and beta adrenergic receptors

321
Q

Recall the pathway for angiotenisn II production

A

Angiotensinogen Angiotensin I Angiotensin II

322
Q

What enzyme catlayses the cleavage of angiotensinogen

A

Renin

323
Q

What factors leads to insulin secretion from beta cells

A

Increased blood glucose Increase blood arginine or leucine Breakdown of lipids to tri-fatty acids

324
Q

What is the typical pulmonary systolic pressure

A

25mmHG

325
Q

Name the primary muscles of insp, active during quiet inspiration

A

External intercostal muscles Diaphragm

326
Q

What is present in the bronchi but not the bronchioles that prevents it from collapse

A

Cartillage rings

327
Q

What are the regions of the Loop of Henle

A

Thin descending limb Thin ascending limb Thick ascending limb

328
Q

What is RV

A

Reserve volume - the volume of air that remains in the respiratory system after a maximum forced expiration

329
Q

Which two centres control the rate and depth of breathing

A

Pons Pneumotaxic centre - inhibits resp rate Apneustic centre - increases the depth and reduces the rate of resp

330
Q

What are the two types of dead space in the respiratory system

A

Anatomical dead space => Volume of the conducting zone Physiological dead space => Volume of respiratory system not taking part in gas exc (conducting zone + non fucntional areas)

331
Q

How many lung branches

A

23-24

BMS109 Phys/Pharm (4 decks)

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