Questions Flashcards
1
Q
What is the affect of parsymapthetic stimulation of the heart via the vagus
A
Hyperpolarisation of the cardiac muscle and overall decrease in heart rate
2
Q
On which cells does VP act on
A
Principal cells of the distal tubule
3
Q
What are the determinatns of diastolic pressure
A
Total resistance Blood flow from arterial to venous side
4
Q
What are the types of causes of acute renal failure
A
Pre renal - outside kidney Renal - problems with kindey Post renal - downstream problems
5
Q
Loop diruretics act of the thick ascending limb t or f
A
T loop diuretics block NKCC2 Prevent Na K and Cl reabsorption and thus water reabsorption
6
Q
Within which bone is the pituitary gland located
A
Sphenoid
7
Q
What is an obstrucitve disease
A
Leads to reduction in flow through the airways
8
Q
During forced isnpiration which additional muscels are involved
A
Scalenes, sternocleidomastoids, neck, back and upper respiratory muscles
9
Q
Define the renal threshold for glucose
A
Plasma concentration at which the glucose will start to appear in the urine of a healthy individual
10
Q
How do kinase kinase linked receptors work
A
Leads to the activation of tyrosine kinase which results in protein phosphorylation
11
Q
Deifne the ANS
A
Efferent division of the visceral nervous system
12
Q
Does quiet inspiration involve and active contraction of muscles
A
F it is an active process
13
Q
Do carriers of barters and gitlemans have a lower BP
A
YEs
14
Q
How are sweat glands an exception to this rule
A
Use ACh and muscsrinic receptors at post ganglionic receptors
15
Q
Why does K recycle over the apical membrane in the thick ascending limb
A
Not enough K present in the filtrate to maintain NKCC2
16
Q
Do all blood vessels have nervous sytem input
A
Yes but only larger vessels have discrete nerves
17
Q
The anterior = The posterior =
A
Adeno Neuro
18
Q
What are the main types of mammalian hormones
A
Peptide hormones Catecholamines Steroid hormones
19
Q
Does quiet exp involve the active contraction of muscles
A
No it is passive
20
Q
What is the effect of the muations in the proteins which cause Bartters
A
Insuff. Na and Cl- reab and thus less water reab
21
Q
What are the effects of ACE inhibitors
A
Reduction of blood pressure
22
Q
What can be used in the long term to treat asthma
A
GLucocorticoids Longer acting B adrenoreceptor agon
23
Q
In which layer of a blood vessel would you find the vasorum
A
Adventitia
24
Q
What causes distal renal acidosis
A
Mutation in AE1 resulting in its presence in both apical and basolateral membrane ultimately leading to HCO3- being excreted in the urine
25
By what methods can we decrease the mean arterial pressure
Vasodilation - symp A1 adrenoreceptor antag e.g. prazosin Decrease cardiac output - sympathetic B1 adrenoreceptor antag e.g. atentolol/propanolol Ca2+ channel blocker ACE inhibitors
26
Where are venules and arterioles only found
In tissues
27
Is breathing an involuntary mechanism that cant be altered
No - it can be consciously altered
28
What are the only types of animals to have loops and Henles and why is this
Mammals and birds They are the only ones to have the ability to adjust their urine concentration
29
Name an example of a pharmacological compound which interacts with an enzyme
Apamin blocks K+ channels leaving neurones hyperpolarised resulting in the firing in many action potentials resulting in the sensation of pain
30
In what region of the hypothalamus are the osmoreceptors found
Supra-optic nucleus Para ventricular nucleus
31
What is meant by the shuttling hypothesis
Increased VP leads to AQP2 insertion Decreased VP results in vesicle reformation and removal of AQP2 from the apical membrane
32
State the equation of air flow in the lungs
V = Delta P / R
33
What causes asthama
Oversensitivity of the smooth muscle in the airways
34
What is the role of the pleural membranes
Prevents lungs from sticking to the chest wall
35
What are the net effects of vasopressin
Increase water reabsorption Decrease in body fluid osmolality
36
How is the B-intercalated cell configuration different
AE1 is present on the apical membrane and pumps protons into intersitial fluid
37
On which area of the nephron and which protein do thiazide diuretics work on
NCC Early distal
38
What is the average stroke volume
70ml
39
What is seen in patients with asthma
Hyperactive airways resulting in bronchoconstriction and decreased radius of the bronchi
40
How does foatal HB differ from adult Hb
Instead of two beta has two gamma No affect of 2,3-DPG Allows high affinity to scavenge oxygen
41
What are the subclasses of ligand gated ion channels
`nAChR - 4 TM domains - cation selective Glutamate receptor - 3 TM domains, P loop P2X receptor - 2 TM domains, ATP gated
42
What are the main types of capillaries
Continuous Fenestrated Discont/sinusoid
43
What type of mutation causes distal renal acidosis
Change of function
44
What is iC
Inspiratory capacity - The maximum volume of air which can be inspired after a normal quiet expiration
45
What are the names of the two vessels that link the lymphatic system with the CVS
Right lymphatic duct Thoracic lymphatic duct
46
List some of the causes of chronic renal failure
Diabetes Hypertension Glomerular nephritis PKD
47
State the equations for MAP
Disastolic - (1/3XPP) OR CO X TPR
48
Recall some diseases associated with high thyroid hormone levels
Graves disease
49
By what mechanisms can hormones regulate the levels of their own receptors
Up regualtion when low hormone levels - increased receptor, exposure of membrane, less breakdown Down regulation when high hormone levels - decreased receptor, concealing membrane, greater rate of breakdown
50
How does the aorta cope with peak ejection pressure
Smooth muscle in media replaced by concentric layers of elastic tissue that allow the vessel to expand during peak pressures
51
Define affinity
The ability of a ligand to bind to a receptor
52
What is the role of central chemoreceptors
Monitor conditions of the CSF and respond indirectly to to CO2 increases
53
Which AQP channels are found of the aprical membrane of the principal cell
AQP2
54
What effect does an Ai subunit have
Inhibits adenylate cyclase
55
Does the ammount of Na in the plasma determine the plasma volume
No the volume determines sodium content
56
How are the ions brought into the cell in the thick ascending limb
1 Na 1 K and 2 Cl Brought into cell through symporter on the apical membrane (NKCC2 symporter)
57
Is angiotenisin a small protein
Small peptide, 8 amino acids
58
What is IRV
Inspirtory reserve volume - volume of air that can be expired after a normal quiet inspiration
59
What are the two forms of diabetes insipidus and how do they differ
Central DI -problem with CNS which results in no release of VP Nephrogenic DI - Normal VP response but no resposne, deffective V2 receptors
60
What are the two main NTs of the ANS
NA and ACh
61
How can the RMM of proteins in the urine indicate problems with the filtration barrier
High RMM proteins - problems with filtration barrier Low RMM proteins - problems with reabsorption
62
Which region of the Loop of Henle is permeable to Na and Cl but not permeable to H2O
Thin ascending limb
63
What is the name of the enzyme which catlayses the coversion of Fe3+ to Fe2+
Methaemoglobin reductase
64
What can be seen in patients
Hyperkalaemia Hypertension Acidosis Pericarditus Aneamia Lethargy Nausea Vomitting
65
Do the combinations of subunits create different receptors
Yes
66
What to the agonists of B2 receptors in the bronchi cause
Bronchodilation
67
Explain the mechanism of vasopressin
Binds to V2 receptors on the basolateral membrane of principle leading to activation of a G-protein coupled pathway that leads to the activation of PKA - PKA phosphorylates vesicles that lie underneath the apical membrane resulting in the fusion of the two membranes and insertions of AQP2 water channels and subsequent reabsorption of wayer
68
What can be said about pressure and air movement during expiration
Pat \< Palv So air moves out of the lungs
69
What is significant about the diameter of the capillaries and the size of the red blood cell
Red blood cells are larger
70
What is the role of ENaC in the principal cells
Na influx
71
What is the average resting HR
70bpm
72
What is the roles of the lymphatic system
Deliver excess tissue fluid to the CVS
73
How do antagonists work
Bind to the receptor forming a drug-receptor complex which prevents the agonist form binding whilst also not causing a response
74
Are veins more compliant than arteries
Yes
75
What is diabetes insipidus
Inadequet ADH levels --\> polydipsia and polyuria
76
What is the typical systemic diastolic pressure
75 mmHg
77
Equation for compliance
Change in vol / Change in pressure
78
Recall some diseases associated with decreased thyroid hormone levels
Cretinism (children), myxoedema (adults)
79
What happens as a result of humidifcation of air in the lungs
Increase the P(H2O) in the air whilst decreasing the partial pressure of the other gas constituents - overall partial pressure maintained
80
What type of pharmacological compounds are hormones
Agonists
81
What is the effect of the balancing of the inward force privded by the elastic recoild of the lings and the elastic recoil of the chest wall
Intrapleural space with a lower pressure than the atmosphere
82
Name some examples of GPCRs
mAchR, adrenreceptors, opiate receptors, olfactory receptors
83
what is cardiac output
CO=SVXHR
84
What causes the transport maximum
Limited number of carrier/transporter proteins in the membrane
85
How does Gitlemans compare to Barters
Same symptoms however show hypocalcaemia (opposite Bartters)
86
Which lung volume cant be measured by spirometery
Residual volume
87
Name an antagonist of GABAa and its mechanism of action
Picrotxin - prevents opening of all GABAa channels thus preventing any inhibition of brain activity leading to seizures
88
Are venules open all of the time
No the pressure of the cells and surrounding tissues may close the vessel, all flow prevented below a certain pressure
89
Define the transport maximum
Where transport across the tubule has reached its maximum rate
90
What is the effect of alcohol on VP release
Inhibits
91
WHat can be used in the short term to treat asthma
Salbutamol - B2 adrenoreceptor agonist , bronchodilator
92
Two types of resp
Internal External
93
Name some examples of restrictive lung diseases
Asbestosis ALS/MND
94
Two BV associated with the kidney
Renal artery and renal vein
95
What hormone is released from the hypothalalmus that triggers thyroid stimulating hormone to be released from the troph cells
Thyrotrophin releasing hormone
96
What do the agonists of B1 receptors in the heart cause
Tachycardia - increased contractility
97
Give examples of molecules secreted from the posterior pittuitary gland
Oxcytocin vasopressin
98
Name an example of a pharmacological compund that interacts with a transporter
Digoxin --\> inhibits Na/K ATPase causing a collapse in the resting potential of the cardiac muscle
99
Define uraemia
Classic set of symptoms associated with chronic renal failure
100
Name the accessory muscles of expiration used during a forced expiration
Internal intercostals Neck Back Abdominals
101
In a healthy adult what can be said about dead space
Antatomical dead space ~ Physiological dead space
102
What is meant by lung compliance
Measure of elasticity - how easy it is to inflate the lungs
103
State the equation for calculation of pulse pressure
Systolic - Diastolic
104
Explain how a fall in BMR or body temp leads to the release of thyroid hormones
Decrease in body temp causes TRH to be released from hypothalamus into the portal. TRH binds to receptors of thyrotroph cells in the adenohypophysis causing the release of thyroid stimulating hormone TSH traveles to the thryoid gland where it stimulates the thyroid follicles to make and release T3 and T4
105
What can be said about air pressure and air movement during inspiration
Pat \>\> Palv So air into lungs down the pressure gradient
106
What happens to K+ brought into the cells
Recycled across apical membrane via the renal outer medullary potassium channel ROMK
107
What are the constituent cells of the respiratory epithelium
Ciliated epithelium - cilia beat to waft mucus Goblet cells - secrete mucin which dissolves to create a fluid layer
108
What are the eight types of blood vessel
Large artery Medium sized artery Arteriole Capillary Venule Medium sized vein Large vein
109
How is Mg2+ reabsorbed in the early distal tubule
Apical Mg2+ channel brings it in, basolateral channel for it to move into interstitial fluid
110
In the proximal tubule, describe how glucose, AA and phosphate is absorbed
Na/K ATPase creates a low IC [Na] Coupling with Na influx (symport) glucose, AA and phosphate brought into cell at apical membrane then leave through facilitated transport proteins in the basolateral membrane
111
Name the different types of nephron and their role
Superficial - main role in reg urine composition Juxtaglomerular - fine tuning of urine composition (counter current)
112
Name an example of a nuclear receptor
Steroid hormone receptors - regualtion of gene transcription, slowest resposne
113
What ions is the GABA a receptor selective for
Chloride ion
114
Explain the mechanism by which the hypothalamus controls release of hormones from the adenohypophysis
Hypothalamus secretes releasing/inhibiting hormones which travel in the portal down the pituitary stalk to the adenohypophysis These hormones then bind to receptors on troph cells and stimulate the release of these hormones into the blood
115
What is the standard GFR
125 ml/min
116
How is CO2 transported in the blood and how does it influence blood Ph
HCO3- CO2 is weakly acidic but bicarbonate used as a buffer
117
what are the different regions of the pittuitary gland
Adenohypophysis (secretory) Neurohypophysis (nervous) Pars intermedia
118
Which Korkoff sound is diastolic pressure in the Uk
Fourth
119
What are the most common form of capillary
Cont.
120
What is PCOS
Polycystic ovarian syndrome, when lots of follicles develope instead of one. Can lead to insulin resistance (so insulin levels rise) can lead to weight gain, hair growth and reduced fertility
121
Describe the pathogenesis of asthma
The trigger, leads to movement of inflammatory cells to the bronchi and release of inflammatory mediators --\> histamine released causes bronchoconstriction
122
What kind of neurotransmitter and receptor is used at pre ganglionic synapses in the symapthetic NS
ACh nAChR
123
Deffine efficacy
The ability of the drug-receptor complex to cause a response
124
Is the binding of one molecule of O2 sufficent to induce transition to relaxed state for all the sub units
Yes
125
In which ECF compartment is most protein retained
Plasma
126
What are the main types of triggers for asthma
Atopic - allergies Non-atopic - cold, air, infections, stress
127
For the given condition state the effect on the dissociation curve and the effect on the haemoglobin Decreased pCO2
Shift left Carry more
128
How is the renal threshold obtained
Extrapolation of linear region of the glucose excretion curve
129
Name some examples of loop diuretics
Furosemide Bumetanide
130
What is the result of a lowered lung compliance
More difficult inspiration, smaller change in lung volume per unit pressure
131
What AQP channels are found in the basolateral membrane of the principal cell
AQP3 AQP4
132
Which intercalated cells configuration is the most common
a-intercalated
133
What is a pneumothorax
When a puncture in the chest wall leads to Pat = Pip Results in collapse of the lungs to minimal volume
134
WHich region of the LOH is permeable to to Na and Cl but not H20
Thick ascending lim
135
Name an antagonist of a hormone that can be used as a drug
Clomiphene citrate is an antagonist of oestrogen leading to increased levels of FSH and LH
136
For the given condition state the effect on the dissociation curve and the effect on the haemoglobin INCREASED PH
Shift left Carry more O2
137
What two states can haemoglobin exist in
Tense - low O2 affinity Relaxed - high O2 affinity
138
What four mutations can lead to Bartters syndrome
Mutation in barttin Mutation in NKCC2 Mutation in CLCK Mutation in ROMK
139
WHat is the effect of increased Na+ rebasorption on K+ secretion
Less K+ secreted
140
What is the name of the initial insulin precurrsor which is cleaves to to form proinsulin
Preproinsulin
141
What kind of structure is a ligand gated ion channel
Pentameric assembly of subunits around a central pore
142
Name an agonist and antagonist of the nAChRs
Ag - nicotine Ant - Curare
143
What are the two main processes in urine formation
Filtration Modification
144
Which barriers must gas cross for gaseous exchange to occur
Apical and basolateral membrane of pneumocytes Capillary endothelium inner and outer membranes
145
Name an example of a pharmacological compound that interacts with an enzyme
Aspirin - inhibits the COX enzyme preventing the synthesis of prostaglandins thus minimising inflammation and the increased sensitivity to pain
146
What factor is minimised in gaseous exchange is minimised
Diffusion distance
147
What region of the nephron is responsible for Na Cl Mg reab
Early distal tubule
148
What is metformin, how does it work
Treatment for diabetes T2, prevents hyperglycemia whilst not causing hypoglycaemia, increases glucose taken up by the muscles
149
Which type of capillary are often found in surrounding epithelia and contain perforated endothelial cells
Fenestrated capillaries
150
What are the stages of chronic renal failure
Mild renal Midl Moderate Severe End stage
151
At what GFR value is there consdiered to be first stage renal failure
\>75 ml / min
152
Where are the preganglionic cell bodies of parasymapthetic neurons located
Spinal cord
153
What is a normal insulin level
2-25 uU / ml
154
For the given condition state the effect on the dissociation curve and the effect on the haemoglobin INCREASED TEMP
Shift right Carry less O2
155
What are two BV associeted with the glomerullus
Afferent and efferent arteriole
156
Define basal metabolic rate
Total body expenditure per unit time when at mental and physical rest but not sleeping
157
What are the main functions of the resp tract
Humidification Filtration Warming
158
What enzyme catalyses the conversion of angiotensin I to angiotensin II
ACE
159
What would the effect of excreeting too little Na be
High Bp
160
What are the two connections between the hpothalamus and pituitary
tract - nervous portal - blood
161
Determine if the follwing are in the cortex or the medulla Bowmanns capsule Glomerulus PT Loop of henle DT Collecting duct
Bowmanns capsule C Glomerulus C PT C Loop of henle M DT C Collecting duct M
162
WHat is TLC
Total lung capacity
163
What are the effects of inslulin secretion in response to high blood glucose levels
Increased uptake of glucose into the cells Increased use of glucose Increases conversion of glucose to glycogen Increased protein synthesis and AA absorb Increases triglyceride synthesis
164
Name one exception to antagonistic control by the ANS
Male sexual fucntion Symp --\> ejaculation Para --\> errection
165
For the given condition state the effect on the dissociation curve and the effect on the haemoglobin DECREASED PH
Shift right Carry less O2
166
Name an example of a thiazide diuretic
Cholorothiazide
167
Which type of renal failure is irreversible and causes peripeheral neuropathy
Chronic
168
In tissues undergoing active respiration, what is the effect on the factors that influence Hb affinity
Inc pCO2 and thus decreased pH as well as increased 2,3-DPG production and body temperature. These all result in a decreased affinity of Hb for O2 shifting the curve right and leading to a release of O2 inti the tissues, this helps to keep up with O2 demand by activetly respiring tissues
169
What would be seen in a spirometry of a patient with obstructive diseases
Decrease in FEV1 below 80%
170
For the given condition state the effect on the dissociation curve and the effect on the haemoglobin Decreased 2,3-DPG
Shift left Carry more O2
171
What happens to Na brought into the cell
Taken out by Na/K ATPase on basolateral membrane
172
What do the agonists of a2 receptors in the heart cause
Increased contractility
173
Explain signal transduction via GPCRS
At rest GDP bound alpha has a high affinity for the beta-gamma complex Ligand bidning causes GTP to dissplace the GDP and the dissociation of alpha from the beta-gamma complex Both subunits then bind effectors triggering an intracellular signalling cascade When alpha hydrolyses the GTP signalling is stopped
174
What is the name of the proteins responsible for Na and CL uptake from the lumen of the distal tubule
Sodium chloride transported NCC
175
What 5 of the pancrease is endocrine
1%
176
What is the role of apical ROMK channels in the principal cells
K+ secretion into the urine
177
Two processes of ventillation
Inspir Expir
178
How does the a-intercalated cell lead to its effects
H+ ATPase in apical membrane pumps H+ into the lumen of the tubule At basolateral AE1 exchanges Cl- for HCO3- which is removed from the cell and later reabsorbed THe basolateral Cl- channel allows Cl0 to recycle ensuring sufficient ions for AE1 to facilitate HCO3-
179
What are the main types of receptors
Ligand gated ion channels GPCRs Kinase-linked receptors Nuclear receptors
180
Define oedema
Blockages of a lymphatic duct that leads to impaired flow and the accumulation of fluid
181
What are the two principal zones of the respiratory tract
Conducting zone - nose to bronchial tree Respiratory zone - alveolar ducts and air spaces
182
What is the role of peripheral chemoreceptors
Peripheral chemoreceptors located in the carotid artery and aortic arch respond to inc CO2
183
What is the result in an increase lung complicance
Harder to expire, loss of elastic recoil, larger change in lung volume per unit pressure
184
Which type of renal failure is reversible, unchanged Hb levels,
Acute
185
What occurs during filtration
Water, ions, amino acid, glucose and other small molecules leave the glomerulus and enter bowmans capsule
186
Is there proportionally more smooth muscle in the bronchioles than the bronchi
Yes as no cartilage in the bronchi - so smooth muscle instead
187
What is the role of a-intercalated cells
H+ secretion HCO3- absorption
188
How is blood pressure regulated in the long term
Varying of blood volume by renin-angiotensin system
189
Where is the highest fraction of blood situated at any one time
In the veins
190
How doe humoral factors lead to changes in airway diameter
Adrenaline relased into the blood leads to dilation of the airways, histamine released during inflammatory responses leads to constriction of the airways
191
What is important for regulating diameter of arterioles
vascular smooth muscle
192
When would you find an intercalated cell in its beta configuration
During alkalosis
193
Give examples of hormones that can upregualte receptors for other hormones
Oestrogen -\> upregulate progesterone receptors Thyroid hormones -\> upregulate adrenaline receptors
194
List some of the treatments for chronic kidney failure
Phosphate binders Diuretics dialysis Transplantation
195
What the main symptoms of glucose
Glucose excretion Polyuria Polydipsia
196
What is the typical pulmonary diastolic pressure
8mmHg
197
What are the two types of epithelial cells and what are their roles
Pneumocytes - flat cells, minimise diffusion distance Pneumocytes type II - produce surfactant which reduces surface tension
198
WHat is FRC
Functional reserve capacity - volume of air in respiratory system after a quiet expiration
199
Describe the structure of haemoglobin
Tetrameric structure conssisting of two alpha and two beta chain each containing a porphyrin ring consisting of a Fe2+ complex
200
What is the average daily intake of H2O
2.6L
201
what effect does an Aq sub unit have
Regulation of plc
202
How does the parasympathetic nervous system control airway diameter
Vagus releases ACh acts on mAchRs and causes constrtiction of the airway smooth muscle
203
What is the the cause of Gitelmans syndrome
Mutation in NCC - autosomal recessive
204
What is meant by tubular reabsorption
Substances picked out of the nephron and returned to the peritubular capillaries
205
Name some examples of obstructive lung diseases
Asthma COPD/Emphysema Chronic bronchitus Inflammation Oedema
206
What are the effects of NO and how can this be used pharmacologically
Causes vasodilation Sidafinal (viagra) potentiates NO action and can be used to treat erectil dysfunction
207
What is the approximate size and weight of the kidney
5.5x10 cm 150g
208
What is the role of the loop of henle
H20 Na K Cl Mg Ca reabsorption
209
How many TM domains are there in kinase linked receptors
1
210
What class of drug is amiloride and how does it work
K+ sparing diuretic that blocks the ENaC channel leading to Na and H2O loss in the urine, used to trat hypertension
211
Which centres are involved in basic respiratory rhythm and which aspect of resp are they involved in
Dorsal respiratory group - Controls the basic resp pattern, spont activity via signals to the inspiratory muscles Ventral respiratory group - controls forced expiration - inactive when quiet
212
What can be said about the ion concentration of the blood and the filtrate
The same
213
What effect does an As sub unit have
Stimuates adenylate cyclase
214
Names of the classic endocrine glands
Pituiary Thyroid Parathyroid Adrenal Pancreas Ovaries testes
215
What is the typical system systolic pressure
120 mmHg
216
What effect does doubling the radius have on the resistance in the airways, and why
Resitance inversely propertiontal to the fourth power of the radius, so double radius = 16x decrease in resistance
217
Give examples of molecules secreted from the anterior pittuitary gland
Gh, TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH
218
Which kind of receptor elicits the fastest response
Ligand gated ion channel
219
What are typical ExC fluid ion concentrations
K = 5mM Na = 150 mM Cl = 150mM
220
For the given condition state the effect on the dissociation curve and the effect on the haemoglobin Increased PCO2
Shift right Carry less O2
221
What is standard atomspheric pressure
760 mmHg
222
Describe how Vasopressin is released
Hypothalamic osmosreceptors detect increase in plasma osmolality Activation causes depolarisation in neurosecretory cells Vasopressin synth in neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus then travels down the hypothalamic-hypophyseal tract where it is stored at the nerve terminals Opening of VGCC causes Ca influx and promotion of vesicle fusion and exocytosis and release of vasopressin
223
What would the effect of excreeting too much Na be
Low BP
224
How does 2,3-DPH influence Hb affinity for O2
Binds to B globin subunit results in decreased affinity
225
Does changing the radius have a large influence on the flow of air
Yes
226
What is the average daily intake of Na
150mmol
227
Where are large molecules secreted from
Anteriro Adeno
228
Do arterioles and venules run close togehter
Yes
229
How are Mg and Ca reabsorbed in the thick ascending lim
Reabsorption of Na and K drive paracellular transport of Ca and Mg
230
What is a normal blood glucose range
4-6mmol/L
231
What is a typical blood volume range
4-6L
232
Define a knockout
Complete deletion of a gene - no expression
233
What is the effect of nicotine on vasopressin release
Increases vasopressin release
234
What is distinct about the leakiest type of capillary and where are the often found
Incomplete basement membrane Found in sinosids of the liver
235
Define renal failure
A decrease in GF that leads to an increase in serum creatinine and urea
236
What is the name of the protein responsible for regulation of the CLCK channel
Barttin
237
Which region of the kidney is responsible for the bulk of the reabsorption
Proximal tubule
238
By what methods can we increase mean arterial pressure
Vasoconstriction - symp A1 adrenoreceptor agonist ie. phenylephrine Increased cardiac output - symp B1 adrenoreceptor agonists e.g. dobutamine Improved contractility - digitalis inhibits the Na/K ATPase
239
What is a resrtictive lung disease
Decrease in forced vital capacity below expected value and decrease in peak flow
240
What are the components of elastic recoil in the lungs
Antatomical compoent - elastic nature of cells Surface tension - generated at air-fluid interface
241
Do lymphatic ducts contain valves
Can have flap and pocket valves as well as primary lymph valves
242
What effects of thyroid hormones are similar to other endocrine hormones
Insulin and GH stimulate protein synth. Glucagon and GH stimulate glycogenolysis and free fatty acid synthesis
243
Recall the pathway for the iodination of tyrosine to form T3 and T4
I2+Tyr--\>T1 2I2 + Tyr --\> T2 T1+T2 --\> T3 T2+T2 --\> T4
244
Give to examples of ACE inhibitors
Ramipril, captopril
245
Name the two sets of pleural membranes
Visceral pleura - lining the lungs Parietal pleura - lines the inside of the ribcage
246
What are loop diuretics commonly prescribed for
Treatment of hypertnesion - decrease ECFV
247
How is the role of b-intercalated cells
H+ reab HCO3- secretion
248
What is TV
Tidal volume - volume of air normally expired and inspired
249
Does blood have a pressure without the haert beating
Yes
250
Which lung volumes add to give vital capacity
VC = TV + IRV + ERV
251
Is the aorta an elastic artery
Yes
252
What is meant by tubular secretion
Substances are released from the peritubular capillaries into the nephron
253
Give some examples of NANC neurotransmitters
NO(g) Substance P ATP Vasoactive intestinal peptide
254
Define acute renal failure
A drop in GFR lasting hours or days
255
Name one pharmacological use for agonists of the adrenoreceptors
Salbutamol, agonist of the B2 adrenoreceptors causes bronchodilation
256
What factor influences the resitance
Diameter of the blood vessel
257
For the given condition state the effect on the dissociation curve and the effect on the haemoglobin Increased 2,3-DPH
Shift right Carry less O2
258
What is VC
Vital capacity - maximum achievable tidal volume
259
What is Bartters syndrome
Autsomal recessive disease results in polyuria, salt wasting, hypotension, hypokalaemia, metabolic acidosis and hypocakcaemia
260
After what stage does renal failure become progressive
Mild
261
What are some of the detrimental effects of increased blood glucose
Diabetic neuropathy - degredation of the perineurium leading to loss of sensation, gangrene and blindness
262
What are the effects of mAChR agonists
Agonists include pilocarpine and muscarine Cause increased salivation, tear flow, sweating and decreased BP
263
What are typical IC ion conc. NA K CL
Na = 15mM K = 100mM Cl = 4 mM
264
Can the pleural membranes slide easily over each other and seprarate easily
No they do slide easily over but hard to separate
265
Does the beta-gamma complex have any downstream effects
Yes can effect enzymes and ligand gate ion channels
266
What do you see in the ascending limb
Na and Cl move out into the interstitial fluid
267
How can the ECF be subdivided
Interstitial fluid Plasma Transcellular fluid (CSF, urine, stomach acid)
268
Which region of the LOH is peremebable to H20 but not Na or Cl
Thin descending limb
269
What happens to Cl- brought into the cell
Cl- leaves through basolateral CLCK channel
270
How is blood pressure regulated in the short term
Baroreceptors monitor pressure
271
What are the determinants of of systolic pressure
Ejection velocity Stroke volume
272
What is the tranport maximum for glucose
375 mg min
273
What can be seen in ROMK knockout mice to study Bartters
Salt wasting, polyuria, Cl excretion
274
When filling the lungs with air what needs to be overcome before increased pressure leads to increased lung volume
Initial surface tension
275
For the given condition state the effect on the dissociation curve and the effect on the haemoglobin Decreased temp
Shift left Carry more O2
276
What is distal renal acidosis
DIsease state where the pH of the body fluids is too low resulting in metabolic acidosis
277
What do the agonists of B2 receptors in the blood vessels cause
Vasodilation
278
Define transgenic
Mutations that alter the amino acid sequence of a gene
279
What is the name of the structure which co-ordinates the endocrine galnds
Hypothalamic-hypophyseal axis
280
Name an agonist of the GABA a receptor and its mechanism of action
Phenobarbitone - causes opening of all GABA a channels in the brain leading to inhibition of all brain activity
281
What do you see in the descending limb
Water movement out of the filtrate
282
What is FEV1
Forced expiratory volume in 1 second
283
Which enzymes are secreted by the exocrine pancreas
Amylase, trypsin
284
WHat is the rate of oxygen supply reguired by the body
250 ml / min
285
What is the role of surfactant
Surfactant increase surface tension in the samller alveoli allowing them to remain open despite pressure differences which would result in the flow of air into the larger alveloi
286
What happens to the ventillation/perfusion ration as you move from the base to the apex of the lungs
Increase - both decrease resulting in a larger ratio
287
What are the effects of neurosecretory cell stim
VP release, feeling of thirst
288
What are the general classes of ligand protein targets
Enzymes, receptors, transporters and ion channels
289
What is the affect of ecstasy on VP release
Increases
290
What is the average cardiac output
4.9L
291
Where is the kidney located
Between T12 and L3 vertebrae
292
How does the sympathetic nervous systemcontrol airway diameter
Noradrenaline acts at B2 receptors causing dialtion
293
What is the fuctions of the thyroid hormones T3 and T4
Increase the Basal metabolic rate
294
List some examples of kidney diseases
Polycystic kidney disease - increased size Ectopic kidney - extra pelvic kidney Horseshoe kideny - fusion of kidneys Renal ageniesis - No developement of kidneys
295
What happens during quiet inspiration
Diaphragm contracts and moves down, intercostals go up and out Increase thoracic volume causing a decrease in pressure so air moves into the lungs
296
What factors can lead to increased airway resistance
Decrease diameter of the airways, through increased mucus secreations, tissue odema and airway collapse
297
What are the main types of cells in the late distal tubule
Principal Cells alpha intercalated beta intercalated
298
What is normal renal threshold of glucose compared to the normal plasma glucose levels
Renal th glucose = 16 mmol L-1 Normal blood glucose = 4-6 mmol L-1 (almost three times normal level)
299
Explain the mechanism by which the hypothalamus controls the release of hormones from the neurohypophysis
The hormones oxytocin and vasopressin are synthesised and secreted from neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus, then then travel down the axons of these cells where there are released into the rich plexus of BV from the neurohypophsis
300
What is the normal value of airway resitance
1.5 cm H20 S L
301
What are the effects of thyroid hormones
Proteins synthesis, increased use of glucose and free fatty acids, increased lipolysis
302
What are the main fludin compartments of the body
Intracellular fluid Extraceluular fluid
303
What are the causes of the incisura (in the aorta) and the dichrotic notch (in arteries)
Closure of the valves governing the exits of the heart
304
Why is there a need to Hb
O2 dissolved in the plasma alone isnt suff. to supply the tissues
305
Give an example of an effector of the GPCR pathway
Adenylate cyclase - ATP--\> cAMP activates PK-A
306
What is meant by dual innervation
The way in which tissues may be innervated by both sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the ANS
307
What is the role of the principla cells
H2O and Na reab Secretion of K and H
308
Explain the regional differences in perfusion and ventilation in the lungs
Both greater at the base than the apex
309
Is it true that anything that alters Na content will change the volume of the plasma and the blood pressure
Yes
310
Where are receptors for catecholamines and peptide hormones found
In the PM
311
Disadvantages to using the ROMK knockout mice
Major difference in that mice show acidosis but humans show alkalosis
312
What is the difference between type 1 and 2 diabetes
Type 1 - beta cells dont make insulin or cells cant take up glucose Type 2 much more common tissues do not respond to insluin
313
List the 5 korkoff sounds
First - lound tapping Second - Muting of tapping Third - Pounding Fourth - Muffling Fifth - Silence
314
What is ERV
Expiratory reserve volume - The volume of air which can be expired after a normal quiet expiration
315
Where is the basic resp rhythm generated
Medulla oblongata
316
What is the effect of the secondary muscles of inspiration
Increases speed and size od insp
317
What are the different types of chemical signalling
Endocrine - large distances, from gland into blood Paracrine - into the extracellular space Autocrine - chemical binds to receptors on the cell that secreted it
318
How many Ach molecules must bind to an nAChR to activate them
2
319
What are the affects of angiotensin II
Powerful vasoconstrictor leads to increase in blood pressure
320
What kind of Nt is used at post ganglionic synapses in the sympathetic NS
NA Alpha and beta adrenergic receptors
321
Recall the pathway for angiotenisn II production
Angiotensinogen Angiotensin I Angiotensin II
322
What enzyme catlayses the cleavage of angiotensinogen
Renin
323
What factors leads to insulin secretion from beta cells
Increased blood glucose Increase blood arginine or leucine Breakdown of lipids to tri-fatty acids
324
What is the typical pulmonary systolic pressure
25mmHG
325
Name the primary muscles of insp, active during quiet inspiration
External intercostal muscles Diaphragm
326
What is present in the bronchi but not the bronchioles that prevents it from collapse
Cartillage rings
327
What are the regions of the Loop of Henle
Thin descending limb Thin ascending limb Thick ascending limb
328
What is RV
Reserve volume - the volume of air that remains in the respiratory system after a maximum forced expiration
329
Which two centres control the rate and depth of breathing
Pons Pneumotaxic centre - inhibits resp rate Apneustic centre - increases the depth and reduces the rate of resp
330
What are the two types of dead space in the respiratory system
Anatomical dead space =\> Volume of the conducting zone Physiological dead space =\> Volume of respiratory system not taking part in gas exc (conducting zone + non fucntional areas)
331
How many lung branches
23-24
