Questions Flashcards
What is the affect of parsymapthetic stimulation of the heart via the vagus
Hyperpolarisation of the cardiac muscle and overall decrease in heart rate
On which cells does VP act on
Principal cells of the distal tubule
What are the determinatns of diastolic pressure
Total resistance Blood flow from arterial to venous side
What are the types of causes of acute renal failure
Pre renal - outside kidney Renal - problems with kindey Post renal - downstream problems
Loop diruretics act of the thick ascending limb t or f
T loop diuretics block NKCC2 Prevent Na K and Cl reabsorption and thus water reabsorption
Within which bone is the pituitary gland located
Sphenoid
What is an obstrucitve disease
Leads to reduction in flow through the airways
During forced isnpiration which additional muscels are involved
Scalenes, sternocleidomastoids, neck, back and upper respiratory muscles
Define the renal threshold for glucose
Plasma concentration at which the glucose will start to appear in the urine of a healthy individual
How do kinase kinase linked receptors work
Leads to the activation of tyrosine kinase which results in protein phosphorylation
Deifne the ANS
Efferent division of the visceral nervous system
Does quiet inspiration involve and active contraction of muscles
F it is an active process
Do carriers of barters and gitlemans have a lower BP
YEs
How are sweat glands an exception to this rule
Use ACh and muscsrinic receptors at post ganglionic receptors
Why does K recycle over the apical membrane in the thick ascending limb
Not enough K present in the filtrate to maintain NKCC2
Do all blood vessels have nervous sytem input
Yes but only larger vessels have discrete nerves
The anterior = The posterior =
Adeno Neuro
What are the main types of mammalian hormones
Peptide hormones Catecholamines Steroid hormones
Does quiet exp involve the active contraction of muscles
No it is passive
What is the effect of the muations in the proteins which cause Bartters
Insuff. Na and Cl- reab and thus less water reab
What are the effects of ACE inhibitors
Reduction of blood pressure
What can be used in the long term to treat asthma
GLucocorticoids Longer acting B adrenoreceptor agon
In which layer of a blood vessel would you find the vasorum
Adventitia
What causes distal renal acidosis
Mutation in AE1 resulting in its presence in both apical and basolateral membrane ultimately leading to HCO3- being excreted in the urine
By what methods can we decrease the mean arterial pressure
Vasodilation - symp A1 adrenoreceptor antag e.g. prazosin Decrease cardiac output - sympathetic B1 adrenoreceptor antag e.g. atentolol/propanolol Ca2+ channel blocker ACE inhibitors
Where are venules and arterioles only found
In tissues
Is breathing an involuntary mechanism that cant be altered
No - it can be consciously altered
What are the only types of animals to have loops and Henles and why is this
Mammals and birds They are the only ones to have the ability to adjust their urine concentration
Name an example of a pharmacological compound which interacts with an enzyme
Apamin blocks K+ channels leaving neurones hyperpolarised resulting in the firing in many action potentials resulting in the sensation of pain
In what region of the hypothalamus are the osmoreceptors found
Supra-optic nucleus Para ventricular nucleus
What is meant by the shuttling hypothesis
Increased VP leads to AQP2 insertion Decreased VP results in vesicle reformation and removal of AQP2 from the apical membrane
State the equation of air flow in the lungs
V = Delta P / R
What causes asthama
Oversensitivity of the smooth muscle in the airways
What is the role of the pleural membranes
Prevents lungs from sticking to the chest wall
What are the net effects of vasopressin
Increase water reabsorption Decrease in body fluid osmolality
How is the B-intercalated cell configuration different
AE1 is present on the apical membrane and pumps protons into intersitial fluid
On which area of the nephron and which protein do thiazide diuretics work on
NCC Early distal
What is the average stroke volume
70ml
What is seen in patients with asthma
Hyperactive airways resulting in bronchoconstriction and decreased radius of the bronchi
How does foatal HB differ from adult Hb
Instead of two beta has two gamma No affect of 2,3-DPG Allows high affinity to scavenge oxygen
What are the subclasses of ligand gated ion channels
`nAChR - 4 TM domains - cation selective Glutamate receptor - 3 TM domains, P loop P2X receptor - 2 TM domains, ATP gated
What are the main types of capillaries
Continuous Fenestrated Discont/sinusoid
What type of mutation causes distal renal acidosis
Change of function
What is iC
Inspiratory capacity - The maximum volume of air which can be inspired after a normal quiet expiration
What are the names of the two vessels that link the lymphatic system with the CVS
Right lymphatic duct Thoracic lymphatic duct
List some of the causes of chronic renal failure
Diabetes Hypertension Glomerular nephritis PKD
State the equations for MAP
Disastolic - (1/3XPP) OR CO X TPR
Recall some diseases associated with high thyroid hormone levels
Graves disease
By what mechanisms can hormones regulate the levels of their own receptors
Up regualtion when low hormone levels - increased receptor, exposure of membrane, less breakdown Down regulation when high hormone levels - decreased receptor, concealing membrane, greater rate of breakdown
How does the aorta cope with peak ejection pressure
Smooth muscle in media replaced by concentric layers of elastic tissue that allow the vessel to expand during peak pressures
Define affinity
The ability of a ligand to bind to a receptor
What is the role of central chemoreceptors
Monitor conditions of the CSF and respond indirectly to to CO2 increases
Which AQP channels are found of the aprical membrane of the principal cell
AQP2
What effect does an Ai subunit have
Inhibits adenylate cyclase
Does the ammount of Na in the plasma determine the plasma volume
No the volume determines sodium content
How are the ions brought into the cell in the thick ascending limb
1 Na 1 K and 2 Cl Brought into cell through symporter on the apical membrane (NKCC2 symporter)
Is angiotenisin a small protein
Small peptide, 8 amino acids
What is IRV
Inspirtory reserve volume - volume of air that can be expired after a normal quiet inspiration
What are the two forms of diabetes insipidus and how do they differ
Central DI -problem with CNS which results in no release of VP Nephrogenic DI - Normal VP response but no resposne, deffective V2 receptors
What are the two main NTs of the ANS
NA and ACh
How can the RMM of proteins in the urine indicate problems with the filtration barrier
High RMM proteins - problems with filtration barrier Low RMM proteins - problems with reabsorption
Which region of the Loop of Henle is permeable to Na and Cl but not permeable to H2O
Thin ascending limb
What is the name of the enzyme which catlayses the coversion of Fe3+ to Fe2+
Methaemoglobin reductase
What can be seen in patients
Hyperkalaemia Hypertension Acidosis Pericarditus Aneamia Lethargy Nausea Vomitting
Do the combinations of subunits create different receptors
Yes
What to the agonists of B2 receptors in the bronchi cause
Bronchodilation
Explain the mechanism of vasopressin
Binds to V2 receptors on the basolateral membrane of principle leading to activation of a G-protein coupled pathway that leads to the activation of PKA - PKA phosphorylates vesicles that lie underneath the apical membrane resulting in the fusion of the two membranes and insertions of AQP2 water channels and subsequent reabsorption of wayer
What can be said about pressure and air movement during expiration
Pat < Palv So air moves out of the lungs
What is significant about the diameter of the capillaries and the size of the red blood cell
Red blood cells are larger
What is the role of ENaC in the principal cells
Na influx
What is the average resting HR
70bpm
What is the roles of the lymphatic system
Deliver excess tissue fluid to the CVS
How do antagonists work
Bind to the receptor forming a drug-receptor complex which prevents the agonist form binding whilst also not causing a response
Are veins more compliant than arteries
Yes
What is diabetes insipidus
Inadequet ADH levels –> polydipsia and polyuria
What is the typical systemic diastolic pressure
75 mmHg
Equation for compliance
Change in vol / Change in pressure
Recall some diseases associated with decreased thyroid hormone levels
Cretinism (children), myxoedema (adults)
What happens as a result of humidifcation of air in the lungs
Increase the P(H2O) in the air whilst decreasing the partial pressure of the other gas constituents - overall partial pressure maintained
What type of pharmacological compounds are hormones
Agonists
What is the effect of the balancing of the inward force privded by the elastic recoild of the lings and the elastic recoil of the chest wall
Intrapleural space with a lower pressure than the atmosphere
Name some examples of GPCRs
mAchR, adrenreceptors, opiate receptors, olfactory receptors
what is cardiac output
CO=SVXHR
What causes the transport maximum
Limited number of carrier/transporter proteins in the membrane
How does Gitlemans compare to Barters
Same symptoms however show hypocalcaemia (opposite Bartters)
Which lung volume cant be measured by spirometery
Residual volume
Name an antagonist of GABAa and its mechanism of action
Picrotxin - prevents opening of all GABAa channels thus preventing any inhibition of brain activity leading to seizures
Are venules open all of the time
No the pressure of the cells and surrounding tissues may close the vessel, all flow prevented below a certain pressure
Define the transport maximum
Where transport across the tubule has reached its maximum rate
What is the effect of alcohol on VP release
Inhibits
WHat can be used in the short term to treat asthma
Salbutamol - B2 adrenoreceptor agonist , bronchodilator
Two types of resp
Internal External
Name some examples of restrictive lung diseases
Asbestosis ALS/MND
Two BV associated with the kidney
Renal artery and renal vein
What hormone is released from the hypothalalmus that triggers thyroid stimulating hormone to be released from the troph cells
Thyrotrophin releasing hormone
What do the agonists of B1 receptors in the heart cause
Tachycardia - increased contractility
Give examples of molecules secreted from the posterior pittuitary gland
Oxcytocin vasopressin
Name an example of a pharmacological compund that interacts with a transporter
Digoxin –> inhibits Na/K ATPase causing a collapse in the resting potential of the cardiac muscle
Define uraemia
Classic set of symptoms associated with chronic renal failure
Name the accessory muscles of expiration used during a forced expiration
Internal intercostals Neck Back Abdominals
In a healthy adult what can be said about dead space
Antatomical dead space ~ Physiological dead space
What is meant by lung compliance
Measure of elasticity - how easy it is to inflate the lungs
State the equation for calculation of pulse pressure
Systolic - Diastolic
Explain how a fall in BMR or body temp leads to the release of thyroid hormones
Decrease in body temp causes TRH to be released from hypothalamus into the portal. TRH binds to receptors of thyrotroph cells in the adenohypophysis causing the release of thyroid stimulating hormone TSH traveles to the thryoid gland where it stimulates the thyroid follicles to make and release T3 and T4
What can be said about air pressure and air movement during inspiration
Pat >> Palv So air into lungs down the pressure gradient
What happens to K+ brought into the cells
Recycled across apical membrane via the renal outer medullary potassium channel ROMK
What are the constituent cells of the respiratory epithelium
Ciliated epithelium - cilia beat to waft mucus Goblet cells - secrete mucin which dissolves to create a fluid layer
What are the eight types of blood vessel
Large artery Medium sized artery Arteriole Capillary Venule Medium sized vein Large vein
How is Mg2+ reabsorbed in the early distal tubule
Apical Mg2+ channel brings it in, basolateral channel for it to move into interstitial fluid
In the proximal tubule, describe how glucose, AA and phosphate is absorbed
Na/K ATPase creates a low IC [Na] Coupling with Na influx (symport) glucose, AA and phosphate brought into cell at apical membrane then leave through facilitated transport proteins in the basolateral membrane
Name the different types of nephron and their role
Superficial - main role in reg urine composition Juxtaglomerular - fine tuning of urine composition (counter current)
Name an example of a nuclear receptor
Steroid hormone receptors - regualtion of gene transcription, slowest resposne
What ions is the GABA a receptor selective for
Chloride ion
Explain the mechanism by which the hypothalamus controls release of hormones from the adenohypophysis
Hypothalamus secretes releasing/inhibiting hormones which travel in the portal down the pituitary stalk to the adenohypophysis These hormones then bind to receptors on troph cells and stimulate the release of these hormones into the blood
What is the standard GFR
125 ml/min
How is CO2 transported in the blood and how does it influence blood Ph
HCO3- CO2 is weakly acidic but bicarbonate used as a buffer
what are the different regions of the pittuitary gland
Adenohypophysis (secretory) Neurohypophysis (nervous) Pars intermedia
Which Korkoff sound is diastolic pressure in the Uk
Fourth
What are the most common form of capillary
Cont.
What is PCOS
Polycystic ovarian syndrome, when lots of follicles develope instead of one. Can lead to insulin resistance (so insulin levels rise) can lead to weight gain, hair growth and reduced fertility
Describe the pathogenesis of asthma
The trigger, leads to movement of inflammatory cells to the bronchi and release of inflammatory mediators –> histamine released causes bronchoconstriction
What kind of neurotransmitter and receptor is used at pre ganglionic synapses in the symapthetic NS
ACh nAChR
Deffine efficacy
The ability of the drug-receptor complex to cause a response
Is the binding of one molecule of O2 sufficent to induce transition to relaxed state for all the sub units
Yes
In which ECF compartment is most protein retained
Plasma
What are the main types of triggers for asthma
Atopic - allergies Non-atopic - cold, air, infections, stress
For the given condition state the effect on the dissociation curve and the effect on the haemoglobin Decreased pCO2
Shift left Carry more
How is the renal threshold obtained
Extrapolation of linear region of the glucose excretion curve
Name some examples of loop diuretics
Furosemide Bumetanide
What is the result of a lowered lung compliance
More difficult inspiration, smaller change in lung volume per unit pressure
What AQP channels are found in the basolateral membrane of the principal cell
AQP3 AQP4
Which intercalated cells configuration is the most common
a-intercalated
What is a pneumothorax
When a puncture in the chest wall leads to Pat = Pip Results in collapse of the lungs to minimal volume
WHich region of the LOH is permeable to to Na and Cl but not H20
Thick ascending lim
Name an antagonist of a hormone that can be used as a drug
Clomiphene citrate is an antagonist of oestrogen leading to increased levels of FSH and LH
For the given condition state the effect on the dissociation curve and the effect on the haemoglobin INCREASED PH
Shift left Carry more O2
What two states can haemoglobin exist in
Tense - low O2 affinity Relaxed - high O2 affinity
What four mutations can lead to Bartters syndrome
Mutation in barttin Mutation in NKCC2 Mutation in CLCK Mutation in ROMK
WHat is the effect of increased Na+ rebasorption on K+ secretion
Less K+ secreted
What is the name of the initial insulin precurrsor which is cleaves to to form proinsulin
Preproinsulin
What kind of structure is a ligand gated ion channel
Pentameric assembly of subunits around a central pore
Name an agonist and antagonist of the nAChRs
Ag - nicotine Ant - Curare
What are the two main processes in urine formation
Filtration Modification
Which barriers must gas cross for gaseous exchange to occur
Apical and basolateral membrane of pneumocytes Capillary endothelium inner and outer membranes
Name an example of a pharmacological compound that interacts with an enzyme
Aspirin - inhibits the COX enzyme preventing the synthesis of prostaglandins thus minimising inflammation and the increased sensitivity to pain
What factor is minimised in gaseous exchange is minimised
Diffusion distance
What region of the nephron is responsible for Na Cl Mg reab
Early distal tubule
What is metformin, how does it work
Treatment for diabetes T2, prevents hyperglycemia whilst not causing hypoglycaemia, increases glucose taken up by the muscles
Which type of capillary are often found in surrounding epithelia and contain perforated endothelial cells
Fenestrated capillaries
What are the stages of chronic renal failure
Mild renal Midl Moderate Severe End stage
At what GFR value is there consdiered to be first stage renal failure
>75 ml / min
Where are the preganglionic cell bodies of parasymapthetic neurons located
Spinal cord
What is a normal insulin level
2-25 uU / ml
For the given condition state the effect on the dissociation curve and the effect on the haemoglobin INCREASED TEMP
Shift right Carry less O2
What are two BV associeted with the glomerullus
Afferent and efferent arteriole
Define basal metabolic rate
Total body expenditure per unit time when at mental and physical rest but not sleeping
What are the main functions of the resp tract
Humidification Filtration Warming
What enzyme catalyses the conversion of angiotensin I to angiotensin II
ACE
What would the effect of excreeting too little Na be
High Bp
What are the two connections between the hpothalamus and pituitary
tract - nervous portal - blood
Determine if the follwing are in the cortex or the medulla Bowmanns capsule Glomerulus PT Loop of henle DT Collecting duct
Bowmanns capsule C Glomerulus C PT C Loop of henle M DT C Collecting duct M
WHat is TLC
Total lung capacity
What are the effects of inslulin secretion in response to high blood glucose levels
Increased uptake of glucose into the cells Increased use of glucose Increases conversion of glucose to glycogen Increased protein synthesis and AA absorb Increases triglyceride synthesis
Name one exception to antagonistic control by the ANS
Male sexual fucntion Symp –> ejaculation Para –> errection
For the given condition state the effect on the dissociation curve and the effect on the haemoglobin DECREASED PH
Shift right Carry less O2
Name an example of a thiazide diuretic
Cholorothiazide
Which type of renal failure is irreversible and causes peripeheral neuropathy
Chronic
In tissues undergoing active respiration, what is the effect on the factors that influence Hb affinity
Inc pCO2 and thus decreased pH as well as increased 2,3-DPG production and body temperature. These all result in a decreased affinity of Hb for O2 shifting the curve right and leading to a release of O2 inti the tissues, this helps to keep up with O2 demand by activetly respiring tissues
What would be seen in a spirometry of a patient with obstructive diseases
Decrease in FEV1 below 80%
For the given condition state the effect on the dissociation curve and the effect on the haemoglobin Decreased 2,3-DPG
Shift left Carry more O2
What happens to Na brought into the cell
Taken out by Na/K ATPase on basolateral membrane
What do the agonists of a2 receptors in the heart cause
Increased contractility
Explain signal transduction via GPCRS
At rest GDP bound alpha has a high affinity for the beta-gamma complex Ligand bidning causes GTP to dissplace the GDP and the dissociation of alpha from the beta-gamma complex Both subunits then bind effectors triggering an intracellular signalling cascade When alpha hydrolyses the GTP signalling is stopped
What is the name of the proteins responsible for Na and CL uptake from the lumen of the distal tubule
Sodium chloride transported NCC
What 5 of the pancrease is endocrine
1%
What is the role of apical ROMK channels in the principal cells
K+ secretion into the urine
Two processes of ventillation
Inspir Expir
How does the a-intercalated cell lead to its effects
H+ ATPase in apical membrane pumps H+ into the lumen of the tubule At basolateral AE1 exchanges Cl- for HCO3- which is removed from the cell and later reabsorbed THe basolateral Cl- channel allows Cl0 to recycle ensuring sufficient ions for AE1 to facilitate HCO3-
What are the main types of receptors
Ligand gated ion channels GPCRs Kinase-linked receptors Nuclear receptors
Define oedema
Blockages of a lymphatic duct that leads to impaired flow and the accumulation of fluid
What are the two principal zones of the respiratory tract
Conducting zone - nose to bronchial tree Respiratory zone - alveolar ducts and air spaces
What is the role of peripheral chemoreceptors
Peripheral chemoreceptors located in the carotid artery and aortic arch respond to inc CO2
What is the result in an increase lung complicance
Harder to expire, loss of elastic recoil, larger change in lung volume per unit pressure
Which type of renal failure is reversible, unchanged Hb levels,
Acute
What occurs during filtration
Water, ions, amino acid, glucose and other small molecules leave the glomerulus and enter bowmans capsule
Is there proportionally more smooth muscle in the bronchioles than the bronchi
Yes as no cartilage in the bronchi - so smooth muscle instead
What is the role of a-intercalated cells
H+ secretion HCO3- absorption
How is blood pressure regulated in the long term
Varying of blood volume by renin-angiotensin system
Where is the highest fraction of blood situated at any one time
In the veins
How doe humoral factors lead to changes in airway diameter
Adrenaline relased into the blood leads to dilation of the airways, histamine released during inflammatory responses leads to constriction of the airways
What is important for regulating diameter of arterioles
vascular smooth muscle
When would you find an intercalated cell in its beta configuration
During alkalosis
Give examples of hormones that can upregualte receptors for other hormones
Oestrogen -> upregulate progesterone receptors Thyroid hormones -> upregulate adrenaline receptors
List some of the treatments for chronic kidney failure
Phosphate binders Diuretics dialysis Transplantation
What the main symptoms of glucose
Glucose excretion Polyuria Polydipsia
What is the typical pulmonary diastolic pressure
8mmHg
What are the two types of epithelial cells and what are their roles
Pneumocytes - flat cells, minimise diffusion distance Pneumocytes type II - produce surfactant which reduces surface tension
WHat is FRC
Functional reserve capacity - volume of air in respiratory system after a quiet expiration
Describe the structure of haemoglobin
Tetrameric structure conssisting of two alpha and two beta chain each containing a porphyrin ring consisting of a Fe2+ complex
What is the average daily intake of H2O
2.6L
what effect does an Aq sub unit have
Regulation of plc
How does the parasympathetic nervous system control airway diameter
Vagus releases ACh acts on mAchRs and causes constrtiction of the airway smooth muscle
What is the the cause of Gitelmans syndrome
Mutation in NCC - autosomal recessive
What is meant by tubular reabsorption
Substances picked out of the nephron and returned to the peritubular capillaries
Name some examples of obstructive lung diseases
Asthma COPD/Emphysema Chronic bronchitus Inflammation Oedema
What are the effects of NO and how can this be used pharmacologically
Causes vasodilation Sidafinal (viagra) potentiates NO action and can be used to treat erectil dysfunction
What is the approximate size and weight of the kidney
5.5x10 cm 150g
What is the role of the loop of henle
H20 Na K Cl Mg Ca reabsorption
How many TM domains are there in kinase linked receptors
1
What class of drug is amiloride and how does it work
K+ sparing diuretic that blocks the ENaC channel leading to Na and H2O loss in the urine, used to trat hypertension
Which centres are involved in basic respiratory rhythm and which aspect of resp are they involved in
Dorsal respiratory group - Controls the basic resp pattern, spont activity via signals to the inspiratory muscles Ventral respiratory group - controls forced expiration - inactive when quiet
What can be said about the ion concentration of the blood and the filtrate
The same
What effect does an As sub unit have
Stimuates adenylate cyclase
Names of the classic endocrine glands
Pituiary Thyroid Parathyroid Adrenal Pancreas Ovaries testes
What is the typical system systolic pressure
120 mmHg
What effect does doubling the radius have on the resistance in the airways, and why
Resitance inversely propertiontal to the fourth power of the radius, so double radius = 16x decrease in resistance
Give examples of molecules secreted from the anterior pittuitary gland
Gh, TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH
Which kind of receptor elicits the fastest response
Ligand gated ion channel
What are typical ExC fluid ion concentrations
K = 5mM Na = 150 mM Cl = 150mM
For the given condition state the effect on the dissociation curve and the effect on the haemoglobin Increased PCO2
Shift right Carry less O2
What is standard atomspheric pressure
760 mmHg
Describe how Vasopressin is released
Hypothalamic osmosreceptors detect increase in plasma osmolality Activation causes depolarisation in neurosecretory cells Vasopressin synth in neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus then travels down the hypothalamic-hypophyseal tract where it is stored at the nerve terminals Opening of VGCC causes Ca influx and promotion of vesicle fusion and exocytosis and release of vasopressin
What would the effect of excreeting too much Na be
Low BP
How does 2,3-DPH influence Hb affinity for O2
Binds to B globin subunit results in decreased affinity
Does changing the radius have a large influence on the flow of air
Yes
What is the average daily intake of Na
150mmol
Where are large molecules secreted from
Anteriro Adeno
Do arterioles and venules run close togehter
Yes
How are Mg and Ca reabsorbed in the thick ascending lim
Reabsorption of Na and K drive paracellular transport of Ca and Mg
What is a normal blood glucose range
4-6mmol/L
What is a typical blood volume range
4-6L
Define a knockout
Complete deletion of a gene - no expression
What is the effect of nicotine on vasopressin release
Increases vasopressin release
What is distinct about the leakiest type of capillary and where are the often found
Incomplete basement membrane Found in sinosids of the liver
Define renal failure
A decrease in GF that leads to an increase in serum creatinine and urea
What is the name of the protein responsible for regulation of the CLCK channel
Barttin
Which region of the kidney is responsible for the bulk of the reabsorption
Proximal tubule
By what methods can we increase mean arterial pressure
Vasoconstriction - symp A1 adrenoreceptor agonist ie. phenylephrine Increased cardiac output - symp B1 adrenoreceptor agonists e.g. dobutamine Improved contractility - digitalis inhibits the Na/K ATPase
What is a resrtictive lung disease
Decrease in forced vital capacity below expected value and decrease in peak flow
What are the components of elastic recoil in the lungs
Antatomical compoent - elastic nature of cells Surface tension - generated at air-fluid interface
Do lymphatic ducts contain valves
Can have flap and pocket valves as well as primary lymph valves
What effects of thyroid hormones are similar to other endocrine hormones
Insulin and GH stimulate protein synth. Glucagon and GH stimulate glycogenolysis and free fatty acid synthesis
Recall the pathway for the iodination of tyrosine to form T3 and T4
I2+Tyr–>T1 2I2 + Tyr –> T2 T1+T2 –> T3 T2+T2 –> T4
Give to examples of ACE inhibitors
Ramipril, captopril
Name the two sets of pleural membranes
Visceral pleura - lining the lungs Parietal pleura - lines the inside of the ribcage
What are loop diuretics commonly prescribed for
Treatment of hypertnesion - decrease ECFV
How is the role of b-intercalated cells
H+ reab HCO3- secretion
What is TV
Tidal volume - volume of air normally expired and inspired
Does blood have a pressure without the haert beating
Yes
Which lung volumes add to give vital capacity
VC = TV + IRV + ERV
Is the aorta an elastic artery
Yes
What is meant by tubular secretion
Substances are released from the peritubular capillaries into the nephron
Give some examples of NANC neurotransmitters
NO(g) Substance P ATP Vasoactive intestinal peptide
Define acute renal failure
A drop in GFR lasting hours or days
Name one pharmacological use for agonists of the adrenoreceptors
Salbutamol, agonist of the B2 adrenoreceptors causes bronchodilation
What factor influences the resitance
Diameter of the blood vessel
For the given condition state the effect on the dissociation curve and the effect on the haemoglobin Increased 2,3-DPH
Shift right Carry less O2
What is VC
Vital capacity - maximum achievable tidal volume
What is Bartters syndrome
Autsomal recessive disease results in polyuria, salt wasting, hypotension, hypokalaemia, metabolic acidosis and hypocakcaemia
After what stage does renal failure become progressive
Mild
What are some of the detrimental effects of increased blood glucose
Diabetic neuropathy - degredation of the perineurium leading to loss of sensation, gangrene and blindness
What are the effects of mAChR agonists
Agonists include pilocarpine and muscarine Cause increased salivation, tear flow, sweating and decreased BP
What are typical IC ion conc. NA K CL
Na = 15mM K = 100mM Cl = 4 mM
Can the pleural membranes slide easily over each other and seprarate easily
No they do slide easily over but hard to separate
Does the beta-gamma complex have any downstream effects
Yes can effect enzymes and ligand gate ion channels
What do you see in the ascending limb
Na and Cl move out into the interstitial fluid
How can the ECF be subdivided
Interstitial fluid Plasma Transcellular fluid (CSF, urine, stomach acid)
Which region of the LOH is peremebable to H20 but not Na or Cl
Thin descending limb
What happens to Cl- brought into the cell
Cl- leaves through basolateral CLCK channel
How is blood pressure regulated in the short term
Baroreceptors monitor pressure
What are the determinants of of systolic pressure
Ejection velocity Stroke volume
What is the tranport maximum for glucose
375 mg min
What can be seen in ROMK knockout mice to study Bartters
Salt wasting, polyuria, Cl excretion
When filling the lungs with air what needs to be overcome before increased pressure leads to increased lung volume
Initial surface tension
For the given condition state the effect on the dissociation curve and the effect on the haemoglobin Decreased temp
Shift left Carry more O2
What is distal renal acidosis
DIsease state where the pH of the body fluids is too low resulting in metabolic acidosis
What do the agonists of B2 receptors in the blood vessels cause
Vasodilation
Define transgenic
Mutations that alter the amino acid sequence of a gene
What is the name of the structure which co-ordinates the endocrine galnds
Hypothalamic-hypophyseal axis
Name an agonist of the GABA a receptor and its mechanism of action
Phenobarbitone - causes opening of all GABA a channels in the brain leading to inhibition of all brain activity
What do you see in the descending limb
Water movement out of the filtrate
What is FEV1
Forced expiratory volume in 1 second
Which enzymes are secreted by the exocrine pancreas
Amylase, trypsin
WHat is the rate of oxygen supply reguired by the body
250 ml / min
What is the role of surfactant
Surfactant increase surface tension in the samller alveoli allowing them to remain open despite pressure differences which would result in the flow of air into the larger alveloi
What happens to the ventillation/perfusion ration as you move from the base to the apex of the lungs
Increase - both decrease resulting in a larger ratio
What are the effects of neurosecretory cell stim
VP release, feeling of thirst
What are the general classes of ligand protein targets
Enzymes, receptors, transporters and ion channels
What is the affect of ecstasy on VP release
Increases
What is the average cardiac output
4.9L
Where is the kidney located
Between T12 and L3 vertebrae
How does the sympathetic nervous systemcontrol airway diameter
Noradrenaline acts at B2 receptors causing dialtion
What is the fuctions of the thyroid hormones T3 and T4
Increase the Basal metabolic rate
List some examples of kidney diseases
Polycystic kidney disease - increased size Ectopic kidney - extra pelvic kidney Horseshoe kideny - fusion of kidneys Renal ageniesis - No developement of kidneys
What happens during quiet inspiration
Diaphragm contracts and moves down, intercostals go up and out Increase thoracic volume causing a decrease in pressure so air moves into the lungs
What factors can lead to increased airway resistance
Decrease diameter of the airways, through increased mucus secreations, tissue odema and airway collapse
What are the main types of cells in the late distal tubule
Principal Cells alpha intercalated beta intercalated
What is normal renal threshold of glucose compared to the normal plasma glucose levels
Renal th glucose = 16 mmol L-1 Normal blood glucose = 4-6 mmol L-1 (almost three times normal level)
Explain the mechanism by which the hypothalamus controls the release of hormones from the neurohypophysis
The hormones oxytocin and vasopressin are synthesised and secreted from neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus, then then travel down the axons of these cells where there are released into the rich plexus of BV from the neurohypophsis
What is the normal value of airway resitance
1.5 cm H20 S L
What are the effects of thyroid hormones
Proteins synthesis, increased use of glucose and free fatty acids, increased lipolysis
What are the main fludin compartments of the body
Intracellular fluid Extraceluular fluid
What are the causes of the incisura (in the aorta) and the dichrotic notch (in arteries)
Closure of the valves governing the exits of the heart
Why is there a need to Hb
O2 dissolved in the plasma alone isnt suff. to supply the tissues
Give an example of an effector of the GPCR pathway
Adenylate cyclase - ATP–> cAMP activates PK-A
What is meant by dual innervation
The way in which tissues may be innervated by both sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the ANS
What is the role of the principla cells
H2O and Na reab Secretion of K and H
Explain the regional differences in perfusion and ventilation in the lungs
Both greater at the base than the apex
Is it true that anything that alters Na content will change the volume of the plasma and the blood pressure
Yes
Where are receptors for catecholamines and peptide hormones found
In the PM
Disadvantages to using the ROMK knockout mice
Major difference in that mice show acidosis but humans show alkalosis
What is the difference between type 1 and 2 diabetes
Type 1 - beta cells dont make insulin or cells cant take up glucose Type 2 much more common tissues do not respond to insluin
List the 5 korkoff sounds
First - lound tapping Second - Muting of tapping Third - Pounding Fourth - Muffling Fifth - Silence
What is ERV
Expiratory reserve volume - The volume of air which can be expired after a normal quiet expiration
Where is the basic resp rhythm generated
Medulla oblongata
What is the effect of the secondary muscles of inspiration
Increases speed and size od insp
What are the different types of chemical signalling
Endocrine - large distances, from gland into blood Paracrine - into the extracellular space Autocrine - chemical binds to receptors on the cell that secreted it
How many Ach molecules must bind to an nAChR to activate them
2
What are the affects of angiotensin II
Powerful vasoconstrictor leads to increase in blood pressure
What kind of Nt is used at post ganglionic synapses in the sympathetic NS
NA Alpha and beta adrenergic receptors
Recall the pathway for angiotenisn II production
Angiotensinogen Angiotensin I Angiotensin II
What enzyme catlayses the cleavage of angiotensinogen
Renin
What factors leads to insulin secretion from beta cells
Increased blood glucose Increase blood arginine or leucine Breakdown of lipids to tri-fatty acids
What is the typical pulmonary systolic pressure
25mmHG
Name the primary muscles of insp, active during quiet inspiration
External intercostal muscles Diaphragm
What is present in the bronchi but not the bronchioles that prevents it from collapse
Cartillage rings
What are the regions of the Loop of Henle
Thin descending limb Thin ascending limb Thick ascending limb
What is RV
Reserve volume - the volume of air that remains in the respiratory system after a maximum forced expiration
Which two centres control the rate and depth of breathing
Pons Pneumotaxic centre - inhibits resp rate Apneustic centre - increases the depth and reduces the rate of resp
What are the two types of dead space in the respiratory system
Anatomical dead space => Volume of the conducting zone Physiological dead space => Volume of respiratory system not taking part in gas exc (conducting zone + non fucntional areas)
How many lung branches
23-24
