Q3 Test Flashcards
declarative memory
memory with content used to make declarative statements
also known as conscious memory because its contents enters consciousness when accessed
explicit memory
the type of memory that we usually thunk of when we talk about the ability to remember something
can be subdivided into semantic and episodic memory
2 primary ways to assess explicit memory in non-human animals
matching-to-sample
non-matching-to-sample
non-declarative memory
(unconscious or implicit memory)
implicit memory
not accompanied by conscious recollection, does not support the formation of declarative statements, and is implied by behavioral change
collection of experience-dependent abilities
different forms of implicit memory
non-associative learning, simple classical conditioning, priming and perceptual learning
semantic memory
the vast collection of factual information at our commands; facts that do not require you to recollect specific autobiographical events
episodic memory
events that take place at a specific time and in a specific place; always associated with temporal and spatial contexts
direct test
instructions to make intentional use of stored memories
matching-to-sample task
At Time 1 the sample is briefly shown. After seeing the sample, a retention
interval begins, during which the sample information must be
retained. At Time 2, two choice stimuli are shown. The test trial ends when the animal chooses one of the options; correct choices are rewarded. When this task is used with humans, the
correct choice is usually the item that matches the sample, so the task is called the matching-to-sample task
non-matching-to-sample task
takes advantage of nonhuman animals’ preference for selecting
new, novel things whereas humans prefer to select old, familiar things
retention interval
during which the sample information must be
retained
Morris water maze
A second direct memory test widely used with non-human animals; simply a circular pool of water that includes a moveable platform (shown in blue) located within the pool. The height of the platform is slightly less than the
depth of the water so that the top of the platform is just beneath the surface. In addition, the water in the pool is made opaque by the addition of powdered milk or nontoxic paint powder. The reason for coloring the water is to make the platform invisible to the test animal
indirect test
provide evidence of memory when people behave one way when something has been learned and behave differently when
nothing has been learned
non-associative memory
does not involve the formation of new stimulus-response or stimulus-stimulus associations. Instead, non-associative learning involves changes in reactivity that are not accompanied by new associative links. The two best examples of non-associative learning are sensitization and habituation.
sensitization
Some behavioral responses are considered reflexive because they involve unlearned responses to
specific types of stimuli and because it involves a persistent change in
behavior as the result of an experience, it is considered a form of learning. It is not, however, considered a form of associative learning because it does not involve learning to response to a new stimulus
habituation
one sees that the intensity of the startle response gets weaker with each repetition of the US and eventually the response disappears all
together. That is, the stimulus losses its surprising quality and, therefore, one learns to ignore it. This is called habituation and it constitutes a form of learning because behavior has changed as a result of
experience.
you learn to stop responding
Clark & Squire (1998)
tested a group of amnesic patients as well as age-matched controls. The use
of amnesic patients in research on implicit memory is quite common because many amnesic patients have impaired explicit memory, but completely spared implicit memory. That is, the amnesic patient has difficulty with conscious recollection of facts and events but has no difficulty exhibiting normal
experience-based behavioral change that do not require conscious recollection of the past. Thus, learning and memory that appears normal in amnesia is usually considered implicit in nature, and learning and memory that is absent or impaired in amnesia is considered explicit
delay conditioning
all participants exhibit the same increases in
likelihood of exhibiting a conditioned response across training trials. This means it was not important
for participants to be aware of the CS-US relationship nor was it important for participants to have normal explicit memory for learning to occur. In other words, simple delay conditioning appears to establish a form of implicit memory
trace conditioning
involves CS-US trials in which both the CS onset and CS offset precede the US onset, and some time elapses between the CS offset and US onset
conditioned emotional response
based on implicit memory. The best example of a conditioned emotional response is that which results from a fear conditioning procedure, like the one employed by
Michael Davis (1992)
negative priming
demonstrated using the lexical decision task, but instead of showing one letter string on each trial, a pair of colored strings is presented. People are instructed to ignore the strings of one color (e.g., green) and only make judgments about the other (blue) strings
procedural memory
it involves memory for how to do things. A frequently used method for demonstrating procedural learning is the mirror-drawing task
mirror-drawing task
This task requires people to
trace the outline of a shape that is drawn in double lines by placing the tip of a pencil inside the two lines and moving it around the shape while trying to keep inside the lines.
mirror reading
we can simply present people with a special text passage (like the one to the left) and record how quickly they are able to read the passage. At first people are slow to read mirror-reversed text, but as
they gain experience with it, they get faster. This indicates that the cognitive skill associated with accomplished mirror reading results from procedural memory,
and like mirror drawing is the result of implicit learning
weather prediction task
a participant sees a
display of one to four cards. The participant’s task is
to use the cards to predict whether it will be sunny
or rainy. After a prediction is made, the participant is
given feedback about his accuracy, and then the
next trial begins with a new display of cards. If a
participant learns to use the cards as effective cues,
the likelihood of making correct predictions will
increases across task trials.
SRT task
serial reaction time; nvolves a computer-run target location task. A visual display is shown that indicates several possible locations of a target. The target is usually just a simple shape (e.g., dot or asterisk) that appears above one of the locations. A set of response keys is also
provided, with each key corresponding to one of the possible target locations. The task is merely a
long series of very simple trials. On any one trial, the target appears, and the participant must press
the corresponding response key as quickly and accurately as possible. Once this is accomplished the
target disappears and the next trial begins when it appears in a new location.
encoding
the mechanism whereby information is registered in
the long-term memory store. The theories and data that are discussed, therefore, concern how events that occur at the time of learning influence permanent storage.
orienting task
These three different tasks are called orienting tasks. This is because they require people to orient their cognitive processes towards specific aspects of a stimulus
e-checking task
requires people to orient towards the shapes of letters
letter-counting task
requires that they orient toward the number of letters
pleasantness task
requires that they orient towards the affective qualities evoked by the meaning of the words
intentional recall
conscious and deliberate retrieval of info from memory
incidental recall
ability to recall info that was unintentionally encoded and stored
elaborative rehearsal
refers to actively making connections between new pieces of information and previously learned information in
storage
levels-of-processing framework
This view of memory suggests that processing
depth is the most critical factor related to memory longevity, with deep processing leading to easy-to-access memories that can support good long-term memory test performance
processing depth
defined in terms of degree of elaboration and,
therefore, is tied to semantic processing. In other words, the processing of the meaningful properties of a study item is considered deep whereas the processing of superficial qualities of a study item is
considered shallow
Glenberg, Smith, & Green(1977)
conducted a study in which participants performed two
simultaneous tasks on each trial. At the start of a trial, participants were given a four-digit number to keep in mind. While holding the number in memory, they were required to repeat aloud a set of three
words until the researcher told them to stop, at which time they were required to report the four-digit number. Participants were given the impression that the more important task was remembering the
number, and that word repetition was a secondary task meant to make the primary task of number-
remembering more challenging
Morris, Bransford, Franks (1977)
also generated data problematic for the LOP framework. Morris and colleagues (1977) showed people lists of words, one at a time, and asked them to make judgments about each one. The researchers varied the orienting task by asking participants two different types of questions about the words. For the phonological orienting task, participants were asked to make rhyming judgments about words
sentence frame
incomplete sentence that lacks subject, verb, or complete thought
rhyming recognition task
considered a shallow processing task, because making judgments about word sounds does not require processing of meaning
transfer-appropriate-processing
does not insist upon the across-the-board superiority of deep processing. Instead,
the TAP principle states that the type of encoding process that supports superior memory test
performance depends upon the nature of the memory test
Stein (1978)
also suggest the need to re-evaluate the LOP framework. Stein (1978)
presented participants with a list of words, one at a time. Each word included a single uppercase letter. Stein (1978) manipulated orienting task type, using a shallow task that required participants to attend to the visual appearances of the words, and a deep task that required attention to the
meanings of the words. For the shallow encoding condition, people were asked whether specific
letters were capitalized
Glenberg (1976)
used a method called the continuous paired-associates procedure.
continuous paired-associate procedure
This procedure involved a long series of trials of two types.
lag
longer lags encourage greater encoding variability
encoding variability
If you see the same word pairs close together in time, you are likely to think about them in the same
way both times
Rogers, Kuiper, Kirker (1977)
presented participants with lists of words and varied the type or orienting tasks used when responding to each one. Of special interest in
this study is an orienting task in which participants decided if they considered the words to be self-
referential. The results of the study showed that
incidental word recall was much better following the self-reference task compared to all other
orienting tasks, including the pleasantness task that is generally considered the gold standard among
orienting tasks
self-reference effect
exemplifies the influence of elaborative rehearsal, it also illustrates the benefits of processing information in relation to a well-established, well-integrated body of knowledge
self-schema
Everybody probably knows more about themselves than they know about any other topic, so we each have a highly organized knowledge base called a self-schema.
Bower, et al. (1969)
demonstrated the memorial benefits of organization at the time of encoding. found superior recall for the organized list. This result illustrates the benefits of material-induced organization, an effect that is thought to result from
elaborative rehearsal encouraged by the well-structured study list
material-induced org.
occurs when the to-be-remembered information suggests a specific
way of structuring your thoughts about to-be-remembered material. For this reason, material-induced organization takes advantage of the fact that we all share certain general knowledge and that we tend
to mentally arrange information in similar ways by referring to such common knowledge.
Tulving (1962)
called this sort or highly personal way of structuring the world, subjective organization, and he studied it in a list-learning experiment. Tulving (1962) presented participants with a list of unrelated words using 16 study-test phases. For each study phase, the list of words was presented in a random order.
subjective organization
Tulving found that the overall number of words that a person could recall was a function of the degree to which words were clustered during recall and took this as evidence for the memorial benefit provided
by subjective organization
von Restorff effect
noted that people find unusual, novel items much more memorable than commonplace items.
distinctiveness
a factor that is illustrated by the von Restorff effect. Hedwig von Restorff (1933) noted that people find unusual, novel items much more memorable than commonplace items.
bizarre imagery effect
found that boosted memory above the levels achieved in the comparison imagery condition. The bizarre imagery effect is a nice illustration of the robust influence that distinctive encoding can have on memory.
encoding specificity hypothesis
Tulving & Thomson (1973)
suggested that successful remembering might best be understood in terms of the encoding specificity hypothesis. According to their hypothesis, successful retrieval of information from the long-term store is dependent upon a good match between the cues processed at the time of encoding and the retrieval cues available at the time of remembering. When there is a good match, then retrieval is likely to be successful. When there is a poor match, retrieval is much less likely to be successful.
strong associate
weak associate
Watkins & Tulving (1975)
Godden & Baddeley (1975)
context effect
Slamecka & Graf (1978)
testing effect
acrostic
acronym
mnemonic device
comprehension
Branford & Johnson (1972)
Bower, Karlin, & Dueck (1975)
Cheisi, Spilich, & Voss (1979)
Anderson & Pichert (1978)
Sachs (1967)
retrospective method
verbatim memory
Jarvella (1970)
gist memory
online/concurrent methods
Swinney (1979)
cross-modality semantic priming
anaphoric reference
cataphoric reference
implication
inference
unauthorized inference
indirect request
bridging
autobiographical memory
Bahrick, Bakrick, & Wittlinger (1975)
Janssen, Chessa, & Murre (2005)
Galton-Crovitz method
recency effect
infantile amnesia
reminiscence bump
Marian & Neisser (2000)
implicit associations test
affective misattributions test
flashbulb memory
Christianson (1989)
Talarico & Ruben (2003)
Greenberg (2004)
Otani, et al. (2005)
