Q2: Lecture 9 Flashcards
memory
a record of the past that is retained for use in the future
memory store
the creation of permanent record of information
learning
the processes
whereby memories are established
STM
short-term memory; memories that are accessible immediately after encoding, but soon access tends to fail
LTM
long term memory; memories that tend to remain accessible over extended periods of time
Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968)
made the modal model theory
modal model
theory that proposes that memory is made up of 3 parts; sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory
research that supported the modal model
Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) model
research findings that suggested the modal model needed to be replaced
STS
short-term store; a way of understanding the phenomenon of short-term memory
LTS
long-term store;
Brown-Peterson paradigm
measures how long someone can hold info in their short-term memory
rehearsal prevention
the act of interfering with the process of rehearsing info, which can impact STM
Miller (1956)
interpreted as quantifying the capacity limits of the STS (short term store)
span of apprehension
the capacity of STM is severly limited
Miller’s magic number
(7 ±2)
digit span task
requires one to report the to-be-remembered digits in the same order encountered during presentation
Conrad (1964)
noted that subjects made more errors in immediate recall of visually
presented lists of letters when the letters sounded alike (e.g., P and C) compared to when they were
visually similar (e.g., P and R), indicating that STM was especially susceptible to acoustic confusion
Wickelgren (1965)
found that rehearsal prevention tasks that required processing items with
sounds like those of to-be-remembered items resulted in poorer immediate memory that rehearsal
prevention tasks that required processing items with dissimilar sounds
Baddeley (1966)
not only seemed consistent with the idea that short-term representations are acoustic, but also that
long-term representations are semantic; Baddeley (1966) believed he was creating opportunities for different types of confusion,
with sound-alike lists promoting phonological confusion and synonym lists promoting semantic
confusion
phonological confusion
people struggle to remember or distinguish between words or sounds that sound very similar to each other
semantic confusion
when someone has trouble understanding the meaning of words or situation
rote rehearsal
occurs information from the STS is transferred into the
LTS. This transference is thought to result from a recoding process that transforms the phonological
STS code into a semantic code for the LTS
maintenance rehearsal
simple mental repetition, also known as maintenance rehearsal; Provided that one rehearses the contents of the
STS, its availability will be maintained for as long as rehearsal continues. This is the reason rote
rehearsal is also called maintenance rehearsal
recoding
transforms the phonological
STS code into a semantic code for the LTS
serial recall
participants are asked to remember a list of items in the order they were presented
free recall
memory recall where a person is asked to recall a list of items in any order
Murdock (1962)
using lists of words as the to-be-remembered items.
serial position curve
U-shaped graph that shows how people remember items from the beginning and end of a list compared to the middle
recency effect
Good recall of items at the end of the lists
primary effect
good recall of items at
the beginning of the lists
Glanzer & Cuntiz (1966)
found that the recency and primacy effects can be influenced by separate factors
interference
when competing information makes it harder to recall or learn new info
Posner & Keele (1967)
had research participants perform a series of trials of a simple letter-
matching task.
letter-matching task
a letter appeared briefly on a screen and then one second later a
second letter appeared. Participants responded “SAME” if the two presentations involved the same
letter of the alphabet and responded “DIFFERENT” if the two presentations involved different letters
of the alphabet
Wickens (1972)
made use of a variation on the Brown-Peterson paradigm; used triads of words like APPLE,
BANANA, and ORANGE. Each participant in the study completed four Brown-Peterson trials. On
each trial three words were presented on a screen for 2 seconds. After reading the words,
participants were given a three-digit number and for 20 seconds they counted backwards by threes
starting with the on-screen number. After this 20 second retention interval, participants were asked to
recall the three to-be-remembered words
proactive interference
where previously learned info hinders the ability to learn or recall new info
release from PI
a function of
how related the previously studied words were to the fruit
names used on the last trial
Begg & Robertson (1973)
conducted a simple experiment in which participants were
required to recall lists of studied nouns
Nelson & Rothbart (1972)
conducted a study of paired-associate learning in which participants
needed to learn number-word pairings.
paired-associate learning
a classic memory paradigm where individuals learn to associate two unrelated items (like words) together, essentially memorizing the connection between them, and are later tested on their ability to recall one item when presented with the other
acoustic savings
Waugh & Norman (1965)
provided data inconsistent with this
notion using a method called the probe digit task.
probe-digit task
each trial of the probe digit task, a person
listens to a list of tape-recorded digits being read. The list is followed by a tone that indicates that the
list is over and that a recall response is required. The last digit of the list is identified as the probe
digit, and the participant tries to recall the digit that followed the first occurrence of the probe digit
Craik & Watkins (1973)
employed an unusual method called the G-word task
G-word task
people
listened to a recording of a long list of words being read aloud. They were instructed to pay attention
and notice any words that began with the letter G. When they heard a G-word, they were to hold it in
memory until the next G-word occurred, at which time they needed to remember the new G-word but
did not need to remember the previous one. The listening task was occasionally interrupted, and
participants were asked to report the most recently heard G-word
incidental memory
the ability to learn and recall information w/o consciously trying to
ISI
interstimulus intervals
chunking
a mechanism whereby many small pieces of information are re-represented as a single
large piece of information
