pyschopathology

Question 1

what is psychopathology?

Answer 1

the study of psychological disorder

Question 2

what are the two ways on deciding if a person’s behaviour and/or psychological state are sufficiently unusual to justify diagnosing and treating them for psychological disorder?

Answer 2

statistical infrequency
deviation from social norms

Question 3

what is statistical infrequency?

Answer 3

occurs when an individual has a less common characteristic (e.g being more depressed or less intelligent) than most of the population

Question 4

how is the statistical infrequency approach used when measuring intelligence?

Answer 4

average IQ = 100
in a normal distribution, most people (68%) have a score of 85-115
only 2% of people have a score below 70 (these people are considered abnormal and are liable to recieve a diagnosis of intellectual disability disorder)

Question 5

evaluation: how is it a strength that statistical infrequency is useful?
(give an example of statistical infrequency)

Answer 5

used in clinical practice as a part of formal diagnosis and a way to assess the severity of symptoms.
e.g diagnosis of intellectual disability disorder requires an IQ of below 70 (bottom 2%)

example of statistical infrequency: Beck depression inventory (score of 30+ [top 5% respondents] is widely interpreted as severe depression)

shows that the value of statistical infrequency criterion is useful in diagnostic and assessment processes

Question 6

evaluation: how is it a limitation that infrequent characteristics can be positive as well as negative?

Answer 6

for every person with an IQ below 70 there is another with an IQ above 130
these examples show that being unusual or at one end of a psychological spectrum does not make someone abnormal (we wouldn’t think someone abnormal for having a high IQ or someone with a low depression score on the BDI as abnormal)

means that although statistical infrequency can form part of assessment and diagnostic procedures, it is never sufficient as the sole basis for defining abnormality

Question 7

what is deviation from social norms?

Answer 7

concerns behaviour that is different from the accepted standards of behaviour in a community or society

Question 8

how are social norms specific to the cultures we live in?

Answer 8

social norms may be different for each generation for each generation and different in every culture (relatively few behaviours that are universally considered abnormal)

e.g homosexuality was considered abnormal in out culture in the past and continues to be viewed as abnormal (and illegal) in some cultures
(april 2019 brunei introduced new laws that make sex between men an offence punishable by stoning to death)

Question 9

what is an example of deviation from social norms?

Answer 9

person w antisocial personality disorder (psychopathy) is impulsive, aggressive and irresponsible
according to DSM-5 (manual used to diagnose mental disorder) one important symptom of antisocial personality disorder is ‘an absence of prosocial internal standards associated with failure to conform to lawful and culturally normative ethical behaviour’

showing psychopathy would be considered abnormal in many cultures

Question 10

evaluation: how is it a strength that deviation from social norms is useful?

Answer 10

used in clinical practice
e.g key defining characteristic of antisocial personality disorder is failure to conform to culturally acceptable ethical behaviour (recklessness, aggression) and are all deviations from social norms
shows that the deviation from social norms criterion has value in psychiatry

Question 11

evaluation: how is the variability of social norms in different cultures and situations a limitation?

Answer 11

person from one culture group may label someone from another group as abnormal using their standards rather than the person’s standard.
e.g experience of hearing voices in norm in some cultures (msgs from ancestors) but would be seen as a sign of abnormality in most parts of UK

means it is difficult to judge deviation from social norms across different situation and cultures

Question 12

what is meant by ‘failure to function adequately’ ?

Answer 12

occurs when someone is unable to cope with ordinary demands of day to day living
(e.g unable to maintain basic standards of nutrition and hygiene, cannot hold jobs or maintain with relationships around them)

Question 13

what were the signs proposed by Rosenhan and Seligman (1989) that can be used to determine if someone is failing to function adequately?

Answer 13

• when a person no longer conforms to standard interpersonal rules (e.g maintaining eye contact and respecting personal space)
• when a person experiences severe personal distress
• when a persons behaviour becomes irrational or dangerous to themselves or others

Question 14

evaluation: how is it a strength that the failure to function criterion that it represents a sensible threshold for when people need professional help?

Answer 14

25% of people in the UK will experience a mental health problem in any given year - mental health charity Mind
however many people press on in the face of severe mental symptoms and it tends to be at the point that we cease to function adequately that people seek professional help or referred for help by others

means the criterion means that treatment and services can be targeted to those who need them the most

Question 15

evaluation: how is it a limitation of failure to function that it is easy to label non-standard lifestyle choices as abnormal?

Answer 15

it can be difficult to determine when someone is failing to function and when they have simply chosen to deviate from social norms (e.g New Age travellers who don’t work or live in a permanent accommodation, spiritualists who take part in religious rituals and communicate with the dead)

people who make unusual choices and have alternative lifestyles are at risk of being labelled abnormal and their freedom of choice may be restricted and they could be discriminated against.

Question 16

what is deviation from mental health?

Answer 16

occurs when someone does not meet a set of criteria for good mental health

Question 17

What is the criteria of ideal mental health suggested by Jahoda (1958)?

Answer 17

• no symptoms or distress, can cope with stress
• are rational and can perceive ourselves accurately, can self-actualise (strive to reach our potential)
• have a realistic view of the world, good self esteem and lack guilt
• independent of other people, can successfully work, love and enjoy our leisure

Question 18

evaluation: how is it a strength that the ideal mental health criterion is highly comprehensive?

Answer 18

it covers most of the reasons why we might seek or be referred for help with mental health (means an individuals mental health can be discussed meaningfully with a range of professionals who might take different theoretical views

means that the ideal mental health provides a checklist against which we can assess ourselves and others and discuss psychological issues with a range of professionals

Question 19

evaluation: how is it a limitation that its different not equally applicable across a range of cultures?

Answer 19

some of jahoda’s criteria for ideal mental health are firmly located in the context of of the US and Europe
the concept of self actualisation would be dismissed as self indulgent in much of the world
in Europe there is variation in the value placed on personality independence e.g high in Germany and low in Italy

Meaning it is difficult to apply the concept of ideal mental health from one culture to another

Question 20

what is a phobia?

Answer 20

an irrational fear of an object or situation

Question 21

what are the categories of phobia and related anxiety disorder recognised by DSM-5?

Answer 21

SPECIFIC PHOBIA: phobia of an object (animal or body part) or a situation (flying or injections)

SOCIAL PHOBIA: phobia of asocial situation such as public speaking or using a public toilet

AGORAPHOBIA: phobia of being outside or in a public place

Question 22

what are the behavioural characteristics of phobias?

Answer 22

PANIC
AVOIDANCE
ENDURANCE

Question 23

how is panic shown as a behavioural characteristic of phobias?

Answer 23

PANIC: person w phobia may panic in response to phobic stimulus by showing. range of behaviours: crying, screaming running away
children may react differently by freezing, clinging or having a tantrum

Question 24

how is avoidance shown as a behavioural characteristic of phobias?

Answer 24

person w phobia puts a lot of effort to prevent coming into contact with the phobic stimulus (unless they are making a conscious effort to face their fears)

e.g someone w a fear of public toilets may have to limit the time they spend outside the home in relation to how long they can last without a toilet
-> interferes with work, education and social life

Question 25

how is endurance shown as a behavioural characteristic of phobias?

Answer 25

endurance = the alternative behavioural response to avoidance, occurs when the person chooses to remain in the presence of the phobic stimulus e.g person w arachnophobia may choose to stay in a room with a spider on the ceiling and keep a wary eye on it than leaving

Question 26

what are the emotional characteristics of phobias?

Answer 26

ANXIETY FEAR EMOTIONAL RESPONSE = UNREASONABLE

Question 27

how is anxiety an emotional characteristic of phobias?

Answer 27

phobias are classes as anxiety disorders involves an emotional response of anxiety, an unpleasant state of high arousal prevents a person from relaxing and makes it very difficult to experience any positive emotion can be long term

Question 28

how is fear an emotional characteristic of phobias?

Answer 28

fear = the immediate and extremely unpleasant response we experience when we encounter or think abt a phobic stimulus usually more intense but experienced for shorter periods than anxiety

Question 29

how is an 'emotional response being unreasonable' an emotional characteristic of phobias?

Answer 29

the anxiety or fear is much greater than normal and disproportionate to any threat posed e.g person w arachnophobia will have a strong emotional response to a very tiny spider

Question 30

what are the cognitive characteristics of phobias? (concerned w the ways people process information)

Answer 30

SELECTIVE ATTENTION TO PHOBIC STIMULUS IRRATIONAL BELIEFS COGNITIVE DISTORTIONS

Question 31

how is selective attention to the phobic stimulus shown as a cognitive characteristic of phobias?

Answer 31

if a person sees the phobic stimulus it is hard to look away from it: keeping an eye on smth dangerous is good as it gives the person a chance to react quickly to a threat when the fear is irrational, not useful e.g person w pogonophobia will not be able to focus if there is a person with a beard in the room

Question 32

how is irrational beliefs shown as a cognitive characteristic of phobias?

Answer 32

person w a phobia may hold unfounded thoights in relation to phobic stimuli that cannot be easily explained or do not have basis in reality e.g person w social phobias may thin "i must always sound intelligent' / 'if i blush they think i'm weak' these beliefs increase the pressure on the person to perform well in social situations

Question 33

how is cognitive distortions shown as a cognitive characteristic of phobias?

Answer 33

the perceptions of a erson w phobia may be inaccurate and unrealistic e.g person w mycophobia sees mushrooms as disgusting

Question 34

what does the '2 process model' proposed by Mowrer (1960) suggest?

Answer 34

based on behavioural approach to phobias states that phobias are acquired by classical conditioning and continue because of operant conditioning

Question 35

what is classical conditioning?

Answer 35

learning by association occurs when unconditioned stimulus (unlearned) and neutral stimulus are repeatedly paired together NS eventually produced same response as the US alone

Question 36

how did watson and rayner (1920) produce a phobia in a 9 month old baby called 'little albert'?

Answer 36

albert had no fear of white rats, but when shown one researched banged an iron bar (sound = UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS) CREATING AN UNCONDITIONED RESPONSE OF FEAR when rat was shown, albert displayed fear as the NS becomes associated w UCS, so rat became conditioned stimulus became generalised to similar objects e.g non-white rabbit, fur coat

Question 37

what is operant conditioning?

Answer 37

form of learning where behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences includes negative or positive reinforcement

Question 38

how are phobias maintained by operant conditioning?

Answer 38

responses attained by Classical conditioning tend to decline overtime but phobias are long lasting reinforcement increases frequency of behaviour e.g negative reinforcement, individual avoids a situation that is unpleasant and this results in a desirable consequence, which means behaviour is repeated when we avoid phobic stimulus we escape fear n anxiety so reduction in fear reinforces avoidance behaviour and phobia is maintained

Question 39

eval: how is it a strength that there is real world application?

Answer 39

real world application in exposure therapies model suggests phobias are mainatined by avoidance of phobic stimulus so people w phobias benefit from being exposed to them can cure phobia shows value of model as it identifies a means of treating phobias

Question 40

eval: how is it a limitation that the model does not account for the cognitive aspect of phobias?

Answer 40

phobias have significant cognitive components as well as being avoidance responses e.g people hold irrational beliefs about phobic stimulus 2 process model does not offer adequate explanation for phobic cognitions means that model does not completely explain the symptoms of phobias

Question 41

eval: how is it a strength that the 2 process model is evidence for the link between bad experiences and phobias?

Answer 41

little albert study shows how a frightening experience involving a stimulus can lead to phobia of that stimulus jongh et al. found that 73% of ppl w fear of dental treatment had traumatic experience involving dentistry (compared to control group of low dental anxiety where only 21% had traumatic experience) confirms that that the association between stimulus (dentistry) and UCR (pain) does lead to the development of phobias

Question 42

eval: what is a counterpoint to the 2 process model being evidence for the link between bad experiences and phobias

Answer 42

not all phobias have a bad experience, e.g common phobias such as snakes occur in populations whee very few people have had any experience of snakes means the association between phobias and frightening experiences is not as strong as we should expect is behavioural theories provided a complete explanation

Question 43

what is systematic desensitisation?

Answer 43

behavioural therapy designed to gradually reduce phobic anxiety through the principle of classical conditioning person can learn to relax in the presence of phobic stimulus and learn to be cured phobic stimulus is paired wit relaxation instead of anxiety - counter conditioning

Question 44

what are the 3 processes involved with SD?

Answer 44

1. anxiety hierarchy 2. relaxation 3. exposure

Question 45

what happens in the process of anxiety hierarchy?

Answer 45

put together by client w phobia and therapist list of situations related w phobic stimulus in the order of least to most frightening

Question 46

what happens in the process of relaxation?

Answer 46

therapist teaches techniques to be as relaxed as possible (breathing, mental imagery etc) reciprocal inhibition: impossible to be relaxed and afraid at the same time alternative relaxation can be achieved using drugs e.g valium

Question 47

what happens in the process of exposure?

Answer 47

client is exposed to phobic stimulus while in a relaxed state takes place across several session starting at the bottom of the hierarchy and move upwards treatment =successful when client can stay relaxed in situations high on the anxiety hierarchy

Question 48

eval: how is it a strength that SD can help people w learning difficulties?

Answer 48

people w learning disabilities struggle w cognitive therapies that require complex rational thought, may also feel confused and distressed by traumatic therapies e.g flooding SD = most appropriate treatment for people w learning disabilities

Question 49

eval: how is it a strength that SD has evidence that it is effective?

Answer 49

study by gilroy et al. (2003) 42 ppl w arachnophobia in 3 45min sessions at both 3 and 33 months, SD group = less fearful than control group treated by relaxation w no exposure wechsler (2019) said Sd = effective for specifc phobia, social phobia and agoraphobia means it is helpful to people w phobias

Question 50

what is flooding?

Answer 50

behavioural therapy where person w phobia is exposed to an extreme form of phobic stimulus in order to reduce anxiety triggered by stimulus immediate exposure, longer than Sd sessions (hrs long) and can cure phobia in one session

Question 51

how does flooding work?

Answer 51

flooding stops phobic responses v quickly extinction: a learned response is extinguished as CS (dog) is encountered w/o UCS (being bitten) -> result = CS no longer produces the conditioned response

Question 52

what are the ethical safeguards that need to be taken before flooding?

Answer 52

clients must give fully informed consent to traumatic procedure and they are fully prepared client given choice of SD or flooding

Question 53

eval: how is it a strength that flooding is cost-effective?

Answer 53

flooding can work in one long session whereas Sd takes several short sessions to achieve the same result means more people can be treated at the same cost w flooding than SD/other therapies

Question 54

eval: how is it a limitation that flooding is very traumatic?

Answer 54

confronting a phobia in an extreme state provokes tremendous anxiety shumacher et al. (2015) found clients n therapists rated flooding as significantly more stressful than SD traumatic nature of flooding mean attrition (dropout) rates are higher than SD suggests overall therapists might avoid using this treatment at all

Question 55

what is OCD?

Answer 55

a condition characterised by obsessions and/or compulsive behaviour

Question 56

what are some examples of disorders that have repetitive behaviour accompanied by obsessive thinking?

Answer 56

OCD trichotillomania (compulsive hair pulling) hoarding disorder (compulsive gathering of possessions and inability to part with anything) excoriation disorder (compulsive skin picking)

Question 57

how is repetitive compulsions a behavioural characteristic of OCD?

Answer 57

ppl w OCD feel compelled to repeat a behaviour: e.g hand washing, counting, praying, tidying/ordering groups of objects

Question 58

how do compulsions reduce anxiety as a behavioural characteristic of OCD?

Answer 58

10% of ppl w OCD show compulsive behhaviour (no obsessions, j irrational anxiety) compulsive behaviours are performed in an attempt to manage the anxiety produced by obsession e.g compulsive hand washing as a response to an obsessive fear of germs compulsive checking to see if a door is locked

Question 59

how is avoidance a behavioural characteristic of OCD?

Answer 59

ppl w OCD tend to manage it by avoiding situations that trigger anxiety e.g ppl who wash hands compulsively may avoid coming into contact w germs -> can avoid very ordinary situations: emptying rubbish bins, which interfere with daily life

Question 60

how is anxiety and distress an emotional characteristic of OCD?

Answer 60

OCD = unpleasant experience as powerful anxiety accompanies obsessions and compulsions obsessive thoughts = unpleasant and overwhelming the urge to repeat a behaviour (compulsion) creates anxiety

Question 61

how is accompanying depression an emotional characteristic of OCD?

Answer 61

OCD often accompanied by depression, so anxiety can be accompanied by low mood and lack of enjoyment in activities compulsive behaviour tends to bring some relief from anxiety but this is temporary

Question 62

how is guilt and disgust an emotional characteristic of OCD?

Answer 62

OCD sometimes involves other negative emotions e.g irrational guilt over e.g minor moral issues, or disgust which may be directed against smth external like dirt or at the self

Question 63

how are obsessive thoughts a cognitive characteristic of OCD?

Answer 63

90% of ppl w OCD have obsessive thoughts 9thoughts that recur over n over again) vary from person to person but are always unpleasant e.g worries of being contaminated by dirt and germs, impulses to hurt someone

Question 64

how are coping strategies an cognitive characteristic of OCD?

Answer 64

ppl respond to obsessions by adopting cognitive coping strategies e.g religious person being tormented w guilt may respond by praying/meditating helps to manage anxiety but can make the person appear abnormal to others and distract them from everyday tasks

Question 65

how is insight into excessive anxiety a cognitive characteristic of OCD?

Answer 65

ppl w OCD are aware that their obsessions and compulsions are not rational (necessary for diagnosis of OCD) ppl w OCD experience catastrophic thoughts abt worst case scenarios that might result if their anxieties were justified tend of be hypervigilant e.g maintain constant alertness and keep focused on potential hazards

Question 66

what are genetic explanations?

Answer 66

genes (making up chromosomes and consisting of DNA which codes for physical feature and psychological features) are transmitted from parents to offspring

Question 67

what experiment was conducted by Lewis (1936) to explain OCD by genetic explanation?

Answer 67

observed his patients: 37% had parents w OCD and 21% had siblings w OCD suggests that OCD runs in families (although what is passed from one gen to next is genetic VULNERABILITY)

Question 68

what does the diathesis-stress model say?

Answer 68

certain genes leave some ppl more likely to develop a mental disorder but it is not certain, some environmental stress is necessary to trigger the condition

Question 69

what are candidate genes?

Answer 69

genes that have created vulnerability for OCD (some are involved in regulating the development of the serotonin system (e.g %HT1-D beta= implicated in the transport of serotonin across synapses)

Question 70

what does it mean when it says OCD is 'polygenic'?

Answer 70

means OCD is not caused by one single gene but by a combination of genetic variations that together significantly increase vulnerability

Question 71

how did taylor (2013) find that OCD is polygenic?

Answer 71

found evidence that up to 230 different genes may be involved w OCD (includes those associated with dopamine and serotonin -> neurotransmitters that have a role in regulating mood)

Question 72

what does 'aetiologically heterogenous' mean?

Answer 72

one group of genes may cause OCD in one person but a different group of genes may cause the disorder in another person also evidence to suggest different types of OCD may be the result of particular genetic variations such as hoarding disorder and religious obsession

Question 73

eval: how is it a strength that is a strong evidence base for the genetic explanation for OCD? (Nestadt et al. 2010)

Answer 73

evidence suggests some people are vulnerable to OCD because of their genetic makeup: reviewed twin studies: 68% identical twins shared OCD (share 100% DNA) , 31% fraternal twins shared OCD (share 50% DNA) suggests there must be some genetic influence on development of OCD

Question 74

eval: how is it a limitation that there are environmental risk factors? (cromer et al. 2007)

Answer 74

OCD does not appear to be entirely genetic in origin and ERF can also trigger and release the risk of developing OCD cromer et al. 2007: over 1/2 of OCd clients had experienced a traumatic event in their lives n OCD was more severe in those w one or more traumas means genetic vulnerability only provides PARTIAL EXPLANATION for OCD

Question 75

what are neural explanations?

Answer 75

view that physical + psychological are determined by the behaviour of the nervous system

Question 76

what is the role of serotonin for explaining OCD?

Answer 76

neurotransmitter serotonin = believed to help regulate mood if person have low levels of serotonin, normal transmission of mood-relevant info does not take place and person may experience low moos some cases of OCD may be explained by a reduction in the functioning of the serotonin system in the brain

Question 77

how do decision-making systems explain OCD?

Answer 77

some cases of OCD e.g haording disorder = associated w impaired decision-making , may be associated w the abnormal functioning of lateral parts of the frontal lobes of the brain (responsible for logical thinking and making decision) also evidence to suggest the left parahippocampal gyrus = associated w processing unpleasant emotions, functions abnormally in OCD

Question 78

eval: how is it a strength that there is supporting evidence for the neural model of OCD?

Answer 78

antidepressant that purely work on serotonin = effective in reducing OCD symptoms, suggests serotonin may be involved in OCD OCD symptoms from part of conditions known to be biological in origin e.g parkinson's disease -> muscle tremors, paralysis suggests biological factors e.g serotonin n processes underlying certain disorders may be responsible for OCD

Question 79

eval: how is it a limitation that there is no unique neural system?

Answer 79

serotonin-OCD link may not be unique to OCD many people w OCD also experience depression: (co-morbidity) depression probably involves disruption to the action of serotonin means serotonin may not be relevant to OCD symptoms

Question 80

what is the aim of drug therapy for mental disorders?

Answer 80

to increase/decrease levels of neurotransmitters in the brain and to increase/decrease their activity

Question 81

what is the typical antidepressant drug used to tackle the symptoms of OCD?

Answer 81

SSRI (selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitor)

Question 82

how is serotonin released in the brain?

Answer 82

serotonin is released by the presynaptic neurons and travels across a synapse and the neurotransmitter chemically conveys the signals from the presynaptic neuron to the postsynaptic neuron then it is reabsorbed by the synaptic neuron where it is broken down and reused

Question 83

how do SSRIs work in the brain to increase the levels of serotonin in the brain?

Answer 83

SSRIs prevent the reabsorption and breakdown and increase the levels of serotonin in the synapse and thus continues to stimulate the postsynaptic neuron

Question 84

why are SSRIs sometimes combined with other treatments?

Answer 84

used alongside CBT to treat OCD the drugs reduce a person's emotional symptoms (anxiety/depression) meaning they can engage more effectively w the CBT some people also respond best to CBT alone but some respond best w additional drugs e.g fluoxetine

Question 85

what are alternatives to SSRIs ?

Answer 85

tricyclics SNRIs

Question 86

what are tricyclics?

Answer 86

older type of antidepressant e.g clomipramine acts on various systems including the serotonin system where it has the same effect as SSRIs (but has more severe side effects)

Question 87

what are SNRIs?

Answer 87

(serotonin-noradrenaline reuptake inhibitors) increase levels of serotonin and also noradrenaline (another transmitter)

Question 88

eval: how is it a strength that there is good evidence for its effectiveness?

Answer 88

evidence shows that SSRIs reduce symptom severity and improve the quality of life for people w OCD e.g soomro et al. (2009) reviewed 17 studies that compared SSRIs to placebos in treatment all showed better outcomes for SSRIs than for the placebo conditions 70% of people taking SSRIs:their symptoms reduce and for the remaining 30% they use alternative drugs SHOWS DRUGS APPEAR TO BE HELPFUL FOR PEOPLE W OCD

Question 89

eval: wha is the counterpoint to the strength that there is good evidence for its effectiveness?

Answer 89

evidence to suggest that even if drug treatments are helpful for most people w OCD they may not be the most effective treatments available skapinakis et al. (2016) carried out systematic review of outcome studies and concluded that both cognitive and behavioural therapies were more effective in the treatment of OCD MEANS DRUGS MAY NOT BE THE OPTIMUM TREATMENT FOR OCD

Question 90

eval: how is a strength that drugs are cost-effective and non-disruptive to people lives?

Answer 90

cheap - thousands of tablets, liquid doses can be made in the time it takes to conduct one session of psychological therapy non-disruptive to peoples lives: if symptoms decline, they can take drugs instead f spending time attending psychological therapy sessions

Question 91

eval: how is it a limitation that the drugs can have potentially serious side effects?

Answer 91

some experience symptoms such as indigestion, blurred vision, loss of sex drive e.g for those taking clomipramine more tan 1 in 10 experience erection problems and weight gain, 1 in 100 become aggressive and experience heart-related problems

Question 92

what is depression?

Answer 92

a mental disorder characterised by low mood and low energy levels

Question 93

what are the categories of depression and depressive disorders characterised by the DSM-5?

Answer 93

MAJOR DEPRESSIVE DISORDER: severe but often short-term depression PERSISTENT DEPRESSIVE DISORDER: long-term/recurring depression DISRUPTIVE MOOD DYSREGULATION DISORDER: childhood temper tantrums PREMENSTRUAL DYSPHORIC DISORDER: disruption to mood prior to and/or during menstruation

Question 94

how are activity levels a behavioural characteristic of depression?

Answer 94

ppl w depression have reduced levels of energy, making them lethargic -> has a knock-on effect: ppl tend to withdraw from work, education and social life sometimes has the opposite effect: psychomotor agitation, where agitated individuals struggle to relax and may end up pacing up and down a room

Question 95

how is disruption to sleep and eating behaviour a behavioural characteristic of depression?

Answer 95

depression associated with changes to sleeping behaviour: may experience insomnia (reduced sleep) or hypersomnia (an increased need for sleep) appetite may increase/decrease leading to weight gain/loss

Question 96

how is aggression and self-harm a behavioural characteristic of depression?

Answer 96

ppl w depression are often irritable, can be verbally or physically aggressive can have knock on effects: may display verbal aggressive by ending a relationship or quitting a job can also lead to physical aggression directed against the self: includes self harm in the form of cutting or suicide attempts

Question 97

how is a lowered mood an emotional characteristic of depression?

Answer 97

lowered mood is more pronounced that in the daily kind of experience of feeling lethargic and sad: often describe themselves as worthless and empty

Question 98

how is anger an emotional characteristic of depression?

Answer 98

ppl w D often experience anger (can be extreme and directed at the self or others) on occasion such emotions lead to aggressive or self-harming behaviour

Question 99

how is a lowered self-esteem an emotional characteristic of depression?

Answer 99

reduced self-esteem (how much we like ourselves) and can be extreme: e.g sense of self-loathing

Question 100

how is poor concentration a cognitive characteristic of depression?

Answer 100

person may find themselves unable to stick to a task as they usually would or might find it hard to make decisions that they would normally find straightforward poor concentration and poor decision-making are likely to interfere w the individuals work

Question 101

how is attending to and dwelling on the negative a cognitive characteristic of depression?

Answer 101

when experiencing a depressive episode people are more inclined to pay more attention to negative aspects of a situation and ignore the positive s e.g glass as half-empty instead of half-full also have a bias of recalling unhappy events rather than happy ones

Question 102

how is absolutist thinking a cognitive characteristic of depression?

Answer 102

when a person have D they tend to think situations are all-good or all-bad: black and white thinking means when a situation is unfortunate they tend to see it as an absolute disaster

Question 103

what is cognitive vulnerability?

Answer 103

refers to the ways of thinking that may predispose a person to becoming depressed

Question 104

what were the 3 parts of beck's (1967) cognitive approach to explaining depression (cognitive vulnerability) ?

Answer 104

faulty information processing negative self schema the negative triad

Question 105

what is faulty information processing?

Answer 105

when depressed people attend to the negative aspect of a situation and ignore the positive , tend towards absolutist thinking (black and white thinking) e.g winning £1000000 but focusing on the fact that someone had won more than u had

Question 106

what is a schema?

Answer 106

a package of ideas and information developed through experience, acts as a mental framework for the interpretation of sensory information

Question 107

what does it mean to have negative-self schema?

Answer 107

package of information people have about themselves (interpret info about themselves in a negative way)

Question 108

what is the negative triad?

Answer 108

the three types of negative thinking that causes someone to develop a dysfunctional view of themselves 1. negative view of the world e.g 'the world is a cold hard place' creates the impression there is no hope anywhere 2. negative view of the future 'there is no chance the economy is getting any better' reduces hopefulness and enhances depression 3. negative view of the self 'i am a failure' enhances any existing depressive feelings because they they confirm the existing emotions of low self esteem

Question 109

eval: how is it a strength that there is research support for beck's cognitive model of depression?

Answer 109

clark and beck (1999) concluded that not only were these cognitive vulnerabilities more common in depressed people but they PRECEDED the depression confirmed in a more recent PROSPECTIVE study by cohen et al. (2019), tracking the development of 473 adolescents regularly measuring cognitive vulnerability found that showing cognitive vulnerability predicted later depression SHOWS THERE IS AN ASSOCIATION BETWEEN COGNITIVE VULNERABILTY AND DEPRESSION