forensic Psychology Flashcards
1
Q
what is offender profiling?
A
a behavioural and analytical tool that is intended to help investigators accurately predict and profile the characteristics of unknown offenders
2
Q
what are the 2 approaches involved with offender profiling?
A
top-down approach, bottom-up approach
3
Q
what experiment was carried out to establish the top-down approach in America?
A
FBI carried out interviews with 36 sexually motivated serial killers
concluded that data could be catagirised into organised and disorganised crimes with certain characteristics
4
Q
What are the characteristics of an organised offender?
A
Evidence of planning
have a type of victim they seek out
high levels of control
above average intelligence
skilled/ professional employment
socially n sexually competent
could be married, possibly with kids
leave no clues/ evidence,
5
Q
What are the characteristics of disorganised offenders?
A
little evidence of planning
spontaneous: little control, crime scene reflects impulsive behaviour
blow average intelligence
unskilled work/unemployed
history of sexual/relationship dysfunction
live alone/close to the crime scene
6
Q
what are the 4 stages of constructing an FBI profile?
A
- DATA ASSIMILIATION: profiler reviews evidence (crime scheme photos, pathology reports, witness reports)
- CRIME SCENE CLASSIFICATION: disorganised or organised offender
- CRIME RECONSTRUCTION: hypotheses in terms of sequence of events, behaviour of the victim
- PROFILE REGENERATION:
hypothesis related likely to the offender e.g demographic of background, physical characteristics, behaviour
7
Q
eval: how is it a strength of the top-down approach that there is support for a distinct organised category of offender?
A
canter et al. (2004): smallest space analysis used on 100 US murders committed by a different serial killers (assessed co-occurrence of 39 aspects of serial killings e.g torture, form of murder weapon, cause of death etc)
revealed there is a subset of features of serial killings that matched FBI’s typology for organised offenders, suggesting the approach has VALIDITY
8
Q
eval: what is a counterpoint to the strength that there is support for a distinct organised category of offenders?
A
SUGGESTS ORGANISED-DISORGANISED TYPOLOGY IS MORE OF A CONTINUUM
studies suggest organised disorganised typologyy are not mutually exclusive
Godwin (2002) argues it is difficult to classify killers as one type. (may be if high intelligence and sexual competence but commit a spontaneous murder, leaving body at crime scene)
9
Q
eval: how is it another strength that it can be adapted to other kinds of crime e.g burglary?
A
WDIER APPLICATION: critics say technique only applied to sexually motivated murder
Meketa (2017) reports TD profiling has been applied to regularly
retains organised-disorganised distinction but adds 2 new ones: INTERPERSONAL (offender knows victim and steals smth of significance) and OPPORTUNISTIC (generally inexperienced young offender)
10
Q
eval: how is it a limitation that Top-down profiling is the evidence on which it is based?
A
SUGGESTS TOP-DOWN PROFILING DOES NOT NOT HAVE A SOUND, SCIENTIFIC BASIS
canter et al. argued that sample was poor (FBI did not select a random or large sample)
no standard set of questions so each interview was different, therefore not comparison
11
Q
what is the aim of the bottom-up approach?
A
to generate a picture of the offender: their likely characteristics, routine behaviour and social background though systematic analysis of evidence at the crime scene
profile = data-driven
12
Q
What are the 2 types of bottom up profiling?
A
Investigative psych
Geographical profiling
13
Q
What is investigative psychology?
A
An attempt to apply statistical procedures and psychological theory to the analysis a crime scene
14
Q
what is the aim of investigative psychology?
A
To establish patterns of behaviour that are likely to occur across crime scenes
15
Q
what is the aim of investigative psychology?
A
To establish patterns of behaviour that are likely to occur across crime scenes
16
Q
What are the 3 components used in investigative psychology?
A
Interpersonal coherence:
correlations on ppls behaviour, the way they behave/interact w victims
Time and place:
where offender is living/type of employment
Forensic awareness
awareness of particular police techniques that would aid profiling
17
Q
what is geographical profiling?
A
uses information about the location of linked sites crime scenes to make inferences about the likely home and operational base of the offender (crime mapping)
18
Q
What is canter’s (1993) circle theory?
A
ppl commit crime within a limited geographical space: serial offenders will restrict their work to geographical areas they are familiar with,
provides invetsigators with a “centre of gravity” which is likely to include the offenders base
19
Q
According to this theory, what are the 2 ways offenders can be described as?
A
marauder: operates in close proximity to home base
commuter: likely to have travelled a distance away from usual residence
20
Q
eval: how is it a strength that there is supporting evidence for investigative psychology?
A
SUPPORTS ITS USE, THAT PEOPLE ARE CONSISTENT IN THEIR BEHAVIOUR
Canter and Heritage (1990) conducted an analysis of 66 sexual assault cases using smallest space analysis:
several behaviours identified as common (use of impersonal language and lack of reaction to victim)
each individual displayed a characteristic pattern of such behaviours and can help establish if 2 or more offences were committed by the same person (case linkage)
21
Q
eval: what is the counterpoint to the supporting evidence?
A
case linkage depends on data base and will only consist of historical crimes that have been solved (solved means it was straightforward to link these in the first place)
suggests investigative psychology may tell us about crimes that have few links between them and therefore remain unsolved
22
Q
eval: how is ti a strength that there is evidence support for geographical profiling?
A
Lundrigan and Cater (2001) collated info from 120 murder cases involving serial killers in the US:
smallest space analysis revealed spatial consistency in behaviour of killers, location of body disposal site created centre of gravity and offenders homebase was in the middle
supports view geographical info can be used to identify a killer
23
Q
eval: how is it a limitation that geographical profiling may not be sufficient on its own?
A
the success of geographical profiling may be reliant on the quality of data that police can provide, recording of crime is not always accurate (varies between police forces, 75% of crimes go unreported)
Ainsworth 2001 and other critics claim that other factors are just as important for creating a profiling such as timing of offence and age + experience of offender
24
Q
biological explanations: what was Lombroso’s beliefs about offenders?
A
- wrote a book suggesting criminals were a primitive species that were biologically different from non-criminals
- their untamed nature meant they would find it impossible to adjust to society and would just turn to crime
- offending behaviour is a natural tendency, rooted in the genes
25
what is the atavistic form?
Lombroso's argument that the offender subtype could be identified by having biologically determined atavistic characteristics that make offenders phsycially different from us
26
what are some atavistic characteristics?
narrow sloping brow
strong prominent jaw
high cheekbones
facial asymmetry
dark skin
extra toes nipples or fingers
insensitivity to pain, use of slang, tattoos and unemployment
27
how did lombroso categorise types of offender by just characteristics?
murderers: blood shot eyes, curly hair, long ears
sexual deviants: glinting eyes, swollen fleshy lips, projecting ears
fraudsters: thin reedy lips
28
how did lombroso research this?
examined facial n cranial features of hundreds of italian convicts both living and dead:
examined 383 dead convicts and 3893 living ones and concluded 40% criminal acts are committed w people w atavistic characteristics
29
eval: how is it a strength that his work changed the face of the study of crime?
lombroso + father of modern criminology
credited as gifting the emphasis in crime research away from a moralistic discourse (in which offenders were being judged as wicked and weak minded) towards a more scientific and credible position (that of evolutionary influences and genetics where individuals are not to blame)
made a major contribution to the science of criminology
30
eval: what is a counterpoint to this strength?
critics e.g Delisi (2012) have questioned whether his legacy is entirely positive:
attention has been drawn to the racist undertones w his work
many of the atavistic features (curly hair n dark skin) are likely to be found in people African descent
(fitted 19th century eugenic attitudes)
suggested his theory might be more subjective than objective and influenced by racial prejudices
31
eval: how is it a limitation that evidence contradicts the link between atavism and crime?
Goring (2013) explored if there were any physical or mental abnormalities among offenders
compared 3000 offenders and 3000 non-oddness and concluded there was no evidence that offenders are a distinct group w unusual facial and cranial characteristics
challenges the idea that offenders can be physically distinguished from the rest of the population and unlikely to be a subspecies
32
eval: how is it a limitation that lombroso’s methods of investigation were poorly controlled?
L failed to control important variables within his research:
did not compare offender sample with a non-offender control group which could have controlled or an assortment of confounding variables that might have equally explained higher crime rates in groups of people
e.g research explains links between crime n social conditions (poverty and poor educational outcomes result in crime)
suggests L’s research does not meet modern scientific standards
33
what do genetic explanations for crime suggest?
suggests that would be offenders inherit a gene, or combination of genes that predispose them to commit crime
34
What experiment was conducted by by christiansen (1977) to show the importance of genes illustrated by twin studies?
studied over 3500 twin pairs in denmark and found concordance rates for offender behaviour of 35% for identical twin males and 13% for non-identical twin males (slightly lower rate for females)
offender behaviour was checked against danish police records and data indicates that it us not just the behaviour that might be inherited but the underlying predisposing traits
35
what experiment was conducted by crowe (1972) to show the importance of genes illustrated by adoption studies?
found that adopted children whose biological mother had a criminal record had a 50% risk of having a criminal record by the age of 18
adopted children whose mother didn’t have a criminal record only had a 5% risk
36
tiihonen et al. (2015) experiment showed 2 genes may be associated with violent crime: which genes are these and what are their roles?
MAOA gene: regulates serotonin in the brain and has been linked to aggressive behaviour
CDH13: has been linked to substance abuse and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
analysis found about 5-10% of all severe violent crime in Finland is attributable to the MAOA and CDH13 genotypes
37
tiihonen et al. (2015) experiment showed 2 genes may be associated with violent crime: which genes are these and what are their roles?
MAOA gene: regulates serotonin in the brain and has been linked to aggressive behaviour
CDH13: has been linked to substance abuse and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
analysis found about 5-10% of all severe violent crime in Finland is attributable to the MAOA and CDH13 genotypes
38
how is the distress-stress model linked to offending?
if genetics do have some influence on offending, it seems likely that thus is at least partly moderated by the effects of the environments
a tendency towards offending behaviour may come about through the combination of genetic predisposition and biological or psychological trigger
e.g being raised in a dysfunctional environment or having criminal role models
39
neural explanations: what did raine et al. (2000) say about the brains of individuals with antisocial personality disorder?
he reported that there are many brain imaging studies demonstrating that individuals with APD have reduced activity in the prefrontal cortex (part of the brain that regulates emotional behaviour)
also found an 11% reduction in the volume of grey matter in the prefrontal cortex of people with APD compared to controls
40
neural explanations: what experiment was conducted by keysers (2011) to show how offenders with APD can experience empathy but more sporadically than the rest of us?
only when offenders were asked to empathise w a person depicted on film experiencing pain did their empathy reaction (controlled by mirror neurons in the brain) activate.
this suggests that APD individuals are not totally without empathy, but may have a neural switch that can be turned on and off unlike the normal brain that has the empathy switched permanently on
41
eval: how is it a limitation that there is issues with twin studies due to the assumption of equal environments?
Assumed by researched studying twins that environmental factors are held constant because twins are brought up together and therefore must experience similar environments
this shared environments assumption apply more to MZ twins than DZ as MZ twins look identical and people tend to treat them more similarly in turn affects their behaviour
Therefore higher concordance rates for MZs in twin studies may simply be because they are treated much more similarly than DZ twins
42
How is it a strength that there is support for the distress-stress model of offending?
mednick et al. (1984) conducted a study of 13000 danish adoptees
when neither biological nor adoptive parents had convictions, the % of adoptees that did was 13.5% and rose to 20% when either of the biological parents had convictions and 24.5% when both biological and adoptive parents had convictions
shows genetic inheritance plays an important role in offending but environmental influence is also important, supporting the model
43
eval: how is it a strength that there is support between crime and the frontal lobe?
Kandel and freed (1989) reviewed evidence of the frontal lobe damage and antisocial behaviour
people w damage tended to show impulsive behaviour, emotional instability and inability to learn from their mistakes
frontal lobe = associated w planning behaviour
supports the idea that brain damage may be a casual factor in offending behaviour
44
eval: how is it a limitation that the link between neural differences and APD may be complex?
farringdon et al. (2006) studied a group of adult males who scored high on psychopathy and these individuals had experiences various risk factors during childhood (being raised by a convicted parent/being physcially neglected)
could have caused APD and reduced activity in the frontal lobe due to trauma
suggests the relationship between neural differences and APD and offending is complex and there may be other intervening variables that have an impact
45
What was eyesenks theory of personality (1947)?
proposed that behaviour could be represented along 2 dimensions: introversion-extraversion and neuroticism-stability
the 2 dimensions combine to form a variety of personality to form a variety of personality characteristics or traits
he later added a third dimension: psychoticism-sociability
46
what did eyesenk say about our personality traits?
they are biological in origin thus all personality types have an innate biological basis
47
what are the characteristics of extraverts?
underactive nervous system (mean they constantly seek excitement, stimulation and are likely to engage in risk-taking behaviours)
also tend not to condition easily and therefore do not learn from their mistakes
48
what are the characteristics of neurotics?
high level of reactivity in the sympathetic nervous system -> respond quickly to situations of threat (fight/flight)
means they tend to be nervous, jumpy, overanxious and their general instability means their behaviour is often difficult to predict
49
what are the characteristics of psychotics?
suggested to have higher levels of testosterone and are unemotional and prone to aggression
50
what is the criminal personality type?
neurotic-extravert-psychotic
neurotics are unstable and therefore prone to overreact to situations of threat
extraverts seek more arousal and thus engage in dangerous activities
psychotics are aggressive and lack empathy
51
in eysencks theory, personality is linked to offending via what processes?
socialisation processes
52
what is socialisation?
where children are taught to become more able to delay gratification and more socially oriented
53
what did eyesenck believe about people with high E and N scores?
they are difficult to condiiton meaning they are less likely to learn anxiety responses to antisocial impulses
they will become more likely to act antisocially in situations where the opportunity presented itself
54
what is the eyesenck personality questionnaire (EPQ) ?
what is its purpose?
a form of psychological test which locates respondents along the E N P dimensions to determine their personality type
enabled him to conduct research relating personality variables to other behaviours e.g criminality
55
eval: how is it a strength that there is evidence to support the criminal personality?
eyesenck and eyesenck (1977) compared 2070 prisoners' scores on the EPQ with 2422 controls
on measures of E N P across all age groups sampled: prisoners recorded higher average than all controls
agrees with predictions the theory of how offenders rate higher than average across three dimensions eyesenck identified
56
eval: what is a counterpoint to this strength?
farringdon et al. (1982) conducted meta-analysis of relevant studies: reported offenders tended to score high on measures of P but not for E or N
kussner (2017) also inconsistence in evidence of differences on EEG measures (used to measure cortical arousal) between extraverts and introverts -> casts doubt on physiological basis of theory
means some central assumptions of theory have been challenged
57
eval: how is it a limitation that it is too simplistic?
idea that all offending behaviour can be explained by personailty traits alone:
moffitt (1993) drew distinction that offending behaviour that only occurs in adolescence and that which continues into adulthood: argued personality traits alone were a poor predictor of how long offending behaviour would go on for
considered persistence in offednign to be the result of reciprocal process between personality traits and environmental reactions to traits of another
presents a more complex picture than eyesenck suggested
58
eval: how is it a limitation that cultural factors are not taken into account?
bartol and holanchock (1979) studied hispanic and african american offenders in a maximum security prison in NYC:
divided into 6 groups based on offedning history and nature of offences: found all groups were less extravert than a non-offender control group whereas eyesenck would expect them to be extravert (sample of eyesenck was a v different cultural group)
questions how far criminal personality can be generalised and suggests it may be a culturally relative concept
59
what are the 2 cognitive explanations for offending?
level of moral reasoning
cognitive distortions
60
what did kohlberg (1968) propose about the concept of moral reasoning in application to offending behaviour?
proposed peoples decisions and judgements on the issues of right and wrong can be summarised in a stage theory of moral reasoning: the higher the stage the more sophisticated the rasoning
61
what was kohlberg's theory based on and what did he discover?
people's responses to a series of moral dilemmas
found offenders tend to show a lower level of moral reasoning than non-offenders: a group of violent youths were at a significantly lower level of moral development than non violent youths
62
in kohlbergs theory: what is meant by pre-conventional morality (lowest level)?
rules are obeyed to avoid punishment or for personal gain
63
in kohlbergs theory: what is meant by conventional morality?
rules are obeyed for approval or to mainatin social order
64
in kohlbergs theory: what is meant by post-conventional morality (highest level)?
rules are challenged if they infringe on teh rights of others: individuals have a personal set of ethical principles
65
how are offenders more likely to be classified at the pre-conventional level of kohlberg's theory?
characterised by a need to avoid punishment/to gain rewards and associated w less mature child-like reasoning: people who reason at this level may commit crime if they believe they can get away w it or gain rewards (money/increased respect)
66
what is this assumption supported by?
studies that suggest offenders are often more egocentric and display poorer social perspective-taking skills
67
what is said about individuals who reason at higher levels of moral reasoning?
individuals who reason at higher levels tend to sympathise more with the rights of others and exhibit more conventional behaviours such as honesty and generosity
68
what are cognitive distortions?
erros/biases in people's info processing system characterised by faulty thinking
69
what are two examples of cognitive distortions?
hostile attribution bias
minimalisation
70
what is hostile attribution bias?
the tendency to misinterpret the actions of other people
offenders may misread non-aggressive cues (e.g being looked at) and may
trigger a disproportionate violent response
71
what experiment did schonenberg and aiste (2014) to display this?
presented 55 violent offenders w images of emotionally ambiguous facial expressions and when compared to a non-aggressive matched control group, violent offenders were significantly more likely to perceive the images as angry and hostile
72
what is minimalisation?
an attempt to downplay the seriousness of an offence
e.g burglars may describe themselves as doing a job or supporting their family as a way of minimsiing the seriousness of their offences
73
what study was done to suggest individuals who commit sexual offences are prone to minimalisation?
barbaree (1191) found among 26 incarcerated rapists, 54% denied they had committed an offence at all and a further 40% minimised the harm they had caused to the victim
74
eval: how is it a strength that there is a link between level of moral reasoning and crime?
plmer and hollin (1998) compared moral reasoning in 332 male and female non-offenders and 126 convicted offenders using the socio moral reflection measure short form (SRM-SF). offender group showed less mature moral reasoning than the non-offender group
-> consistent w kohlberg's predictions
75
eval: how is it a limitation that the level of moral reasoning may depend on the offence?
thornton and reid (1982) found people who committed crimes for financial gain were more likely to show pre-conventional moral reasoning than those convicted of impulsive crimes (tends to be associated w crimes in which offenders believe they have a chance of evading punishment)
suggests kohlbergs theory may not apply to all forms of crime
76
eval: how is it a strength that cognitive distortions has real-world application?
CBT aims to challenge irrational thinking in the case of behaviour (encouraged to face what they have done and establish a less distorted view of their actions)
harkins et al. (2010) suggested that reduced incidence of denial and minimalisation in therapy is highly associated w a reduced risk of reoffending
suggests the theory of cognitive distortions has practical value
77
eval: how is it a limitation that the level of cognitive distortion depends on the type of offence?
howitt and sheldon (2007) gathered questionnaire responses from sexual offenders: found non-contact sex offenders (accessed sexual images via internet) used more cognitive distortions than contact sex offenders (physically abused children)
suggests distortions are not used in the same way by all offenders
78
79
what does the differential association theory propose?
proposes that individuals learn values, attitudes , techniques, and motives for offending behaviour though association and interaction with different people
80
What are the scientific principles that could explain all types of offending proposed by Sutherland (1924) ?
“The conditions which are said to cause crime should be present when crime is present, and should be absent when crime is absent”
81
Why was differential association theory designed?
to discriminate between individuals who become offenders and those which do not, whatever their social or ethnic background
82
how is offender behaviour learned?
Most through interactions with significant others who the child values most and spends most time with e.g family and peer group
83
how is offender behaviour learned?
Most through interactions with significant others who the child values most and spends most time with e.g family and peer group
84
what are the 2 factors that offending arises from?
Learning attitudes
learning techniques
85
what are the 2 factors that offending arises from?
Learning attitudes
learning techniques
86
What are learning attitudes?
When a person is socialised into a group and are exposed to values and attitudes towards the law (maybe be pro-crime or anti-crime)
Sutherland argues that if a number of pro-criminal attitudes the person comes to acquire outweighs the number of anti-criminal attitudes, they will go on to offend
learning process = same whether a person is learning offending or conformity to the law
87
What are learning attitudes?
When a person is socialised into a group and are exposed to values and attitudes towards the law (maybe be pro-crime or anti-crime)
Sutherland argues that if a number of pro-criminal attitudes the person comes to acquire outweighs the number of anti-criminal attitudes, they will go on to offend
learning process = same whether a person is learning offending or conformity to the law
88
What are learning techniques?
In addition to being exposed to pro-crime attitudes, the would be offender may also learn particular techniques for committing offences (may include how to break into someone’s house through locked window)
89
What are learning techniques?
In addition to being exposed to pro-crime attitudes, the would be offender may also learn particular techniques for committing offences (may include how to break into someone’s house through locked window)
90
What are learning techniques?
In addition to being exposed to pro-crime attitudes, the would be offender may also learn particular techniques for committing offences (may include how to break into someone’s house through locked window)
91
What is socialisation in prison?
theory can also count for why so many convicts released from prison go on to reoffend
it is reasonable to assume that whilst inside prison, inmates will learn specific techniques of offending from other more experienced offenders that they put into practice upon their release
thus learning may occur through observational learning and imitation or direct tuition from offending peers
92
What was the Cambridge study in delinquent development conducted by farrington et al. (2006)?
prospective longitudinal survey of the development of offending and antisocial behaviour in 411 boys (began when boys were aged 8 in 1961 and all living in deprived intercity of south ldn
41% were convicted of at least one offence between age 10-50
the average conviction career lasted from age 19-28 and included 5 convictions
Most important childhood risk factors at age 8-10 for later offending were measures of family criminality, low school attainment, poverty and poor parenting
7% were defined as chronic offenders because they accounted for about half of all officially recorded offences in study
93
eval: how is it a strength that differential association theory changed the focus of offending explanations?
Sutherland was successful in moving emphasis away from early accounts of offending (e.g lomboso) as well as away from theories that explained offending as being the product of individual weakness or immorality
draws attention to the dear that deviant social circumstances and environments may be more to blame for offending than deviant people
approach is more desirable because it offers a more realistic solution to the problem of offending instead of eugenics or punishment
94
eval: what is the counterpoint to this strength?
differential association runs the risk of stereotyping individuals who come from crime ridden provrished backgrounds as unavoidably offenders (even though Sutherland pointed out offending should be considered on an individual case basis
theory tends to suggest that exposure to pro crime values is sufficient to produce offending in those who are exposed to it
ignores the fact that people may choose not to offend despite such influences as not everyone who is exposed go on to offend
95
eval: how is it a strength that the theory can account for offending within all sectors of society?
some offences are clustered amongst more affluent groups in society (even though some types of offence may be clustered within certain inner city working class communities)
Sutherland was interested in white collar or corporate offences and how it may be a feature of middle class social groups who share deviant norms and values
shows that it is not j lower classes who commit offences and that the principles of differential association can be used to explain all offences
96
eval: how is it a strength that the theory can account for offending within all sectors of society?
some offences are clustered amongst more affluent groups in society (even though some types of offence may be clustered within certain inner city working class communities)
Sutherland was interested in white collar or corporate offences and how it may be a feature of middle class social groups who share deviant norms and values
shows that it is not j lower classes who commit offences and that the principles of differential association can be used to explain all offences
97
Eval: how is it difficult to test the predictions of differential association?
Sutherland aimed to provide a scientific mathematical framework within which future offending behaviour can be predicted but it is not testable because it cannot be operationalised
e.g hard to see how the number of pro crime attitudes a person has
similarly theory is built on the assumption that offending behaviour will occur when pro crime values outnumber anti crime ones
this means the theory does not have scientific credibility as we cannot know at what point the urge to offend is realised And the offending career is triggered
98
psychodynamic explanations of offending: why did Blackburn (1993) propose 3 types of inadequate superego?
he argued that if the superego is somehow deficient or inadequate then offending behaviour is inevitable because the id is not properly controlled
99
what are the 3 types of inadequate superego proposed by Blackburn (1993)?
weak superego
deviant superego
over harsh superego
100
what happens when someone has a weak superego?
If the same gender parent is absent during the phallic stage a child cannot internalise a full formed ego as there is no opportunity for identification
makes immoral or offending behaviour more likely
101
what happens when someone has a weak superego?
If the same gender parent is absent during the phallic stage a child cannot internalise a full formed ego as there is no opportunity for identification
makes immoral or offending behaviour more likely
102
what happens when someone has a deviant superego?
if the superego that a child internalises has ioral or deviant values this would lead to offending behaviour
e.g boy raised by a criminal father is not likely to associate guilt w wrong doing
103
what happens when someone has an over harsh superego?
an excessively ounitive or overly harsh parenting style leads to a child with an over harsh superego who is crippled by guilt and anxiety (in comparison to a healthy superego based on identification w a parent who has firm rules but forgives transgressions)
may unconsciously drive the individual to perform criminal acts in order to satisfy the superegos overwhelming need for punishment
104
what is the role of emotion in the psychodynamic explanation of offending?
the effect of an inadequate superego is to allow emotional demands to become uppermost in guiding moral behaviour (key feature of approach)
approach deals with the emotional life of an individuals e.g acknowledges the role of anxiety and guilt in the development of offending behaviour
means that the lack of guilt is relevant to understanding offending behaviour as in the case of maternal deprivation theory
105
what type of personality does maternal deprivation lead to?
affectionless psychopathy: characterised by a lack of guilt empathy and feeling for others
such maternally deprived are likely to engage in acts of delinquency and cannot develop close relationships with others
106
what was the 44 juvenile thieves study done by bowlby (1944)
he found through interviews with thieves and their families that 14 of the sample he studied showed personality and behavioural characteristics that could be classicised a affectiinless psychopathy
12/14 had experiences prolonged separation from their mothers during infancy
in a non offender group only 2 had similar experiences
concluded the effects of prolonged separation had caused affection less behaviour and delinquency amongst juvenile thieves
107
eval: how is it a strength that there is research support for the link between offending and the superego?
goreta (1991) conducted a freudian style analysis of 10 offenders referred for psychiatric treatment where in everyone disturbances in superego formation were diagnosed
each offender experienced unconscious feelings of guilt n need for self punishment - evidence of over-harsh superego (need for punishment manifesting itself as a desire to commit acts of wrongdoing)
evidence seems to support the role of psychic conflicts and an over-harsh superego as a basis for offending
108
eval: how is it a counterpoint that the central principles of the inadequate superego theory are not supported?
if theory was correct we would expect harsh punitive parents to raise children who constantly experience feelings of guilt and anxiety
parents relying on harsher forms of discipline tend to raise children who are rebellious and rarely express feelings of guilt/self-criticism (kochanska et al. 2001)
questions the link between strong-punitive internal parent and excessive feelings of guilt within the child
109
eval: how is it a limitation that the freudian theory is gender-biased?
assumption w theory is that girls develop a weaker superego than boys as identification w same-gender parent is not as strong -> as girls do not experience the intense emotion associated w castration anxiety + are under less pressure to identify w mothers = superego is less fully realised
implication = women should be more prone to offending than men:
rates of imprisonment show opposite is true (20x more men than women in prisons)
study done by hoffman (1975) show when children were required to resist temptation, little girls were more immoral than little boys
suggests there is a bias and it may not be appropriate as an explanation of offending behaviour
110
eval: how is it a limitation that bowlby's theory is based on an association between maternal deprivation and offending?
lewis (1954) analysed data from interviews w 500 young ppl and found maternal D was a poor predictor of future offending and the ability to form close relationships in adolescence
even if there is a link between children who have experience frequent/prolonged separation from mothers and offending = may not be casual relationship -> could be due to other factors e.g poverty
suggests the maternal deprivation may be one of reasons for later offending behaviour but not the only reason
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what is custodial sentencing?
a decision made by a court that punishment for a crime should involve time being in 'custody' (prison or therapeutic/educational institution)
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what are the 4 main reasons for custodial sentencing?
1. deterrence
2. incapacitation
3. retribution
4. rehabilitation
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what is deterrence?
view is based on the behaviourist idea of conditioning through vicarious punishment:
two levels:
general deterrence: aims to send a broad message to members of a given society that crime will not be tolerated
individual deterrence: prevents individual from repeating the same offences in light of their experience
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what is incapacitation?
offender is taken out of society to prevent them reoffending to protect the public
depends of severity of the offence and nature of offender e.g serial murderer/rapist
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what is retribution?
society = enacting revenge for offence by making offender suffer -> suffering should be proportionate to seriousness of offence (based of 'an eye for an eye' that offender should pay for their actions)
ppl see prison as best possible option and any alternatives are criticised
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what is rehabilitation?
ppl would see main objective of prison to reform
upon release offenders should leave prison better adjusted and ready to take their place back in society
prison should provide opportunities to develop skills and training or to access treatment programmes and give offender the chance to reflect on their offence
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what are the psychological effects of custodial sentencing?
stress and depression
institutionalisation
prisonisation
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stress and depression?
suicide rates are chigher in prison than in general population as are incidents of self-mutilation and self harm
stress of prison experience also increases the risk of developing psychological disorders following release
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institutionalisation?
having adapted to norms n routines of prison life, inmates may become so accustomed to these they are no longer able to function on the outside
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prisonisation?
refers to the way prisoners are socialised into adopting an 'inmate code'
behaviour that may be considered unacceptable in the outside world may be encouraged and rewarded inside walls of the institution
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what is recidivism?
reoffending
tendency to relapse into previous condition or mode of behaviour
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what is the problem of recidivism?
difficult to obtain clear figures for recidivism rates for various reasons e.g depends whether if u are looking at reoffending within a year of release or long period
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eval: how is it a limitation of custodial sentencing that there is a negative psychological effect on prisoners?
Bartol (1995) suggested for many offenders imprisonment can be brutal demeaning and generally devastating
according to ministry of justice: 119 people killed themselves in prisons in England and wales in 2016 (at risk = young single men during 24hrs of confinement)
study conducted by prison reform trust (2014) found 25% women and 15% men in prison exported symptoms of psychosis
ALL SUPPORTS IDW THAT OPPRESSIVE PRISON REGIMES MAY BE DETRIMENTAL TO PSYCHOLOGICAL HEALTH WHICH COUKS IMPACT REHABILITIATIONN
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eval: what is the counterpoint to the limitation of negative psychological effect?
figures in prison reform trust study do not include number of inmates experiencing psychotic symptoms before being incarcerated:
many may have pre-existing psychological and emotional difficulties at the time they were convicted
suggests there may be confounding variables that influence the link between prison and psychological effects
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eval: how is it a strength of custodial sentencing that it provides opportunity for training and treatment?
1 objective of imprisonment: rehabilitation (offenders become better people and improved character -> lead a crime-free life when back in society)
many offenders ccess education/training increasing possibility theywill find employment upon release
shirley (2019) vera institue of justice claims offenders who take part in college education programmes are 43% less likely to reoffend
suggests prison may be a worthwhile experience w access to these programmes
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eval: how is it a limitation of custodial sentencing that offenders may learn to become better offenders
incarceration w long-term offenders may give younger inmates the opportunity to learn from more experienced prisoners
may acquire criminal contacts whilst in prison that they may folow up when released
THIS FORM OS EDUCATION MAY UNDERMINE ATTEMPTS TO REHABILITATE PRISONERS AND MAKE REOFFENDING MORE LIKELY
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what is behaviourist modification?
give an example
an application of the behaviourist approach to treatment and is based on principles of operant conditioning
e.g token economies
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what is the aim of behaviourist modification?
aims to reinforxe obedient behaviour in offenders whilst punishing disobedience in the hope the former continues and latter dies
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what happens during token economy?
prisoners are given a token each time they perform a desirable behaviour e.g avoiding confrontation, following rules, keeping cell orderly
emphasised that non-compliance/disobedience mayy result in tokens being withheld/removed (form of punishment)
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why are tokens called secondary reinforcers?
tokens are not rewarding in themselves but derive value from their association w a reward e.g being exchanged for a phone call, time in gym, extra cigs/food (primary reinforcers as they are directly rewarding)
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what are the 3 characteristics required to design and use a token economy?
to operationalise target behaviours
a scoring system
trained staff
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how do they operationalise target behaviours?
target behaviour is operationalised by breaking it down into component parts
e.g target behaviour may be improved interaction w other prison inmates
may be broken down into not touching prisoner as u pass them, speaking politely etc.
units of behaviour should be objective, measurable and agreed w staff and inmates in advance
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how is a scoring system introduced?
staff n prisoners should be aware of how much each particular behaviour is worth
behaviours = hierarchical (some are regarded as more demanding than others so received greater rewards
e.g more tokens for 'working co-operatively on a group task' than 'not swearing'
some token economy systems may award tokens directly whereas others may award points that are concerted to tokens
reinforcements shoudl outnumber punishments by a ratio of 4:1 (gendreau et al. 2011)
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how are staff trained for a token economy?
important that prison staff are given full training in order to implement the token economy successfully
(training = several hours for number of weeks)
aim = standardise the procedures so that all prison staff are rewarding the same behaviours in the same way
staff must also record when they have awarded tokens so the progress of individual prisoners can be assessed
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eval: how is it a strength of behaviour modification that it has evidence to support it?
hobbs and holt (1976) introduced token economy programme w groups of young offenders across 3 behavioural units (4th unit=control)
observed a significant difference in positive behaviour compared to the non-token economy group
field et al. 92004) found token economy programme used w young ppl w behavioural problems was generally effective (even though there was still a number of young people who did not respond but they were placed in a special programme where rewards = more immediate n frequent n result = positive)
SUGGESTS TOKEN ECONOMY DO WORK
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Eval: what is the counterpoint to the strength of research support?
Success of systems depends on consistent approach from prison staff:
Bassett and Blanchard (1977) found any benefits were lost if staff applied the techniques inconsistently (due to factors such as lack of appropriate staff training / high staff turnover) this suggests behaviour mod schemes must ensure full and consistent staff participation to work
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eval: how is it a strength that it is straightforward to set up in custody?
no need for specialist professional to be involved as there would be for other forms treatment e.g anger management
TE can be designed and implemented by anyone in any institution
cost effective, easy to follow once workable methods of reinforcement have been established
suggests BM techniques can be established in most prisons and accessed by most prisoners
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eval: how is it a limitation that it may not affect long term behaviour?
blackburn (1993): BM + has little rehabilitive value and any positive changes made in behaviour in prison may be lost when released
cognitive based treatments e.g anger management lead to more permanent behaviour change: (requires offender to understand cause of offending and take responsibility for actions)
w TE, offender can play along to get rewards but it produces very little character change
explains why TE is discontinued as an offender may quickly regress back to their former behaviour
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evaluation extra: ethical issues?
BH programmes have been associated w decreased conflict within penal institution n more successful management of the prison population -> reduces pressure and stress on prison staff in what can be a hostile and difficult environment
moya and achtenberg 1974: BM can be manipulative n dehumanising, participation in the scheme is obligatory rather than optional and human right campaigners argue that withdrawal of privileges e.g exercises and contact w loved ones (in form of withdrawal of tokens) = unethical
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what is anger management?
a therapeutic programme that involves identifying the signs that trigger anger as well as learning techniques to calm down and deal with the situation in a positive way
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what is the aim of anger management?
not to prevent anger but to recognise it and manage it
individual is taught how to recognise the cognitive factors that trigger their anger and loss of control and then encouraged to develop techniques which bring about conflict resolution without the need for violence
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what did novaco (1975) suggest about cognitive factors?
they trigger the emotional arousal -> precedes aggressive acts
anger is often quick to surface especially in situations that are perceived to be anxiety inducing or threatening
in behaviourist terms: becoming angry is reinforced by the individuals feeling of control in that situation
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what are the 3 stages of anger management?
1. cognitive preparation
2. skills acquisitions
3. application practice
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what is cognitive preparation?
requires an offender to reflect on last experience and consider the typical pattern of their anger
learns to identify those situations which act as triggers to anger and if the way in which the offender interprets the event is irrational, the therapists role is to make this clear
e.g offender may view someone he looking at them as confrontation but in redefining the situation as non threatening, therapist is attempting to break what may be an automatic response for the offender
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what is skills acquisition?
offenders are introduced to a range of techniques n skills to help them deal with anger provoking situations more rationally and and effectively
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what are the 3 techniques in skills acquisition?
cognitive
behavioural
physiological
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skills acquisition: what is involved in the cognitive technique?
positive self talk to encourage calmness
e.g we are all familiar with the idea of counting to 10 to temper our reaction to a stressful event
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skills acquisition: what is involved in the behavioural technique?
assertiveness training in how to communicate more effectively which will become an automatic response if practised regularly
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skills acquisition: what is involved in the physiological technique?
deal w the physical reaction to anger such as relaxation training or meditation
aim: to control one’s emotions rather than being controlled by them
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what is application practice?
offenders are given the opportunity to practise their skills within a carefully controlled environment:
role play is likely to involve offender and therapist re-enacting scenarios that may have escalated anger and acts of violence in past
requires a certain amount of commitment from the offender (must see scenario as real)
requires bravery from therapist who’s job is to ‘wind up’ the offender to assess their progress
if offender deals successfully w role play this is given positive reinforcement by the therapist
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what is the national anger management package?
nationally recognised anger management progamme first devised in 1992 and developed in 1995 by england n wales prison service
comprises of 8 2hr sessions (first 7 over a 3 week period and the last a month afterwards)
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what study was conducted by keen et al. (2000) to show the positive outcome of anger management with young offenders
studied progress made with young offenders between 17 n 21 who took part in the national anger management package
(although there were initial issues: offenders not taking course seriously, forgetting requirements e.g bringing diary etc.) final outcomes were generally positive
offenders reported increased awareness of their anger management difficulties and an increased capacity to exercise self control
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eval: how is it a strength that anger management is better than behaviour modification?
anger management tries to tackle one of the causes of offending: the cognitive processes that trigger anger and offending behaviour (alternative treatments e.g BM deal w only surface behaviour and not processes that drive the behaviour)
experience of AM may give offenders new insight into the cause of their criminality and allow them to self-discover new ways of managing themselves outside of prison setting
SUGGESTS THAT AM IS MORE LIKELY THAN NM TO LEAD TO PERMANENT BEHAVIOUR CHANGE
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eval: what is the counterpoint to the strength of being better than BM?
follow-up studies of AM tend not to support this assumption
blackburn (1993) points out that there is a noticeable effect on the conduct of offenders in the short term, there is little evidence it reduces RECIDIVISM in the long term (bc application phase relies on role play which may not represent all triggers present in a real world sitch)
SUGGESTS AM MAY NOT REDUCE REOFFENDING IN THE END
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eval: how is it a limitation of AM that success may depend on individual factors?
howells et al. (2005) conducted an investigation w australian offenders: found that participation in anger management programme had little overall impact when compared to a control group who received no treatment
(only significant progress was made w offenders who showed intense levels of anger before programme and those open to change and were highly motivated)
SUGGESTS THAT ANGER MANAGEMENT MAY ONLY BENEFIT OFFENDERS THAT FIT A CERTAIN PROFILE
156
eval: how is it a limitation hat AM may be an expensive option?
requires services of highly trained specialists who are used to dealing w violent offenders therefore many prisons do not have the resources to fund such programmes
AM based on committment of those who participate and it may be a problem if prisoners are uncooperative and apathetic 9change takes time and likely to add up to the expense of delivering effective programmes)
SUGGESTS THAT EFFECTIVE ANGER MANAGEMENT PROGRAMMES ARE PROBABLY NOT GOING TO WORK IN MOST PRISONS
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what is restorative justice?
a system for dealing w offending behaviour which focuses on rehabilitation of offenders through reconcilliation w victims (survivors)
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what is the main idea of RJ?
switches the emphasis of convicting a criminal from the needs of the state (to enforce law and punish) to the needs of the individual victim (to feel compensated in some way n come to terms w crime)
braithwaite (2004) 'crime hurts, justice should heal'
less ab retribution (punishing offender) and more ab reparation (repairing the harm they have caused)
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what 2 things does RJ focus on?
the victim (survivor) of their crime and their recovery
offender and their recovery/rehabilitation process
160
what are the key features of the programme?
face to face meeting/conducted remotely via video link
non-courtroom setting where offenders voluntarily meet w survivors under supervision of a trained mediator
survivor is given the opportunity to confront the offender n explain how the incident (enables the offender to comprehend the consequences of their actions including emotional distress it called)
focus on positive outcomes for both survivors and offenders
relevant community members may have a role in the process e.g neighbours friends family members
may wish to explain the effects of the crime
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what is restitution in terms of RJ?
seen as monetary payment by an offender to the survivor for the harm resulting from offence
offender may make some financial restitution to the survivor which may reflect the psychological damage caused or the actual physical damage
e.g offender repaired damaged property themselves in the case break-in
in an emotional sense: offender can support the healing process by repairing and rebuilding the survivor's confidence or self-esteem
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what is the restorative justice council (RJC)?
an independent body whose role is establish clear standards for the use of RJ
supports survivors and specialist professionals in the field
advocates use of RJ beyond dealing w crime
(can used in preventing and managing conflict in many areas including schools, children's services, workplaces, hospital and communities
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eval: how is it a strength of RJ is that evidence suggests it has positive outcomes?
shapland et al. (2008) RJC reported the results of a major 7yr research project: 85% of survivors reported satisfaction w the process of meeting their offender face to face
78% would recommend it to other people experiencing a similar situation
60% of survivors felt the process had made feel better about the incident (enabling them to feel closure and to move)
2% said it had made them feel worse
SUGGESTS RJ ACHIEVES SOME OF ITS AIMS HELPING SURVIVORS OF CRIME COPE W THE AFTERMATH OF THE INCIDENT
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eval: what is the counterpoint to the strength of positive outcomes?
not all research is positive
wood and suzuki (2016) argued restorative processes are not as survivor focused as often reported in satisfaction surveys
RJ processes can become distorted (e.g when survivors of crime are used as a way of helping to rehabilitate offenders, rather than being helped themselves)
SUGGESTS THAT THE NEEDS OF THE SURVIVOR IN RJ MAY BE SEEN AS SECONDARY TO THE NEED TO REHABILITATE OFFENDERS
165
eval: what is the strength is that RJ does seem to lead to a decrease in rates of reoffending (recidivism)
meta analysis of 10 studies by strang et al. (2013) compared offenders who experienced face to face RJ schemes w those who just experienced custodial sentencing
RJ group was significantly less likely to reoffend
(this reduction was larger in offenders convicted of violent crime than crimes against against property
bain (2012) found that in a review of 24 studies there was lower recidivism rates w adult offenders, esp when using one to one contact rather than general community involvement
SUGGESTS THAT RJ HAS A POSITIVE IMPACT ON REOFFENDING, MAYBE MORE SO FOR SOME TYPES OF OFFENCE THAN OTHER AND SOME APPROACHES
166
eval: how is it a limitation of rj that offenders may abuse the system?
van gijseghem (2003) suggests that offenders may use RJ for all kinds of reasons: avoiding punishment, paying down their faults, taking pride in their relationship w the survivor using direct contact
EXPLAINS WHY NOT ALL OFFENDERS ULTIMATELY BENEFIT FROM RJ AND GO ON TO REOFFEND.
167
eval extra: domestic violence weakness
national police chief's council (NPCC) policy doesn't support its use in the context of domestic violence:
liebman (2016) argues main concern = power imbalance between abuser puts pressure on survivors (may fear the worst if they do not go along w ex/partner suggestions during meditation)
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evaluation extra: domestic violence strength
pre-trial meditation in domestic violence cases can produce positive results for survivors
sen et al. (2018) suggests restorative approaches are particularly useful in cases of intimate partner violence where a couple has chosen to remain together as they can address the harm caused and plan for the future
