memory

Question 1

what is coding?

Answer 1

the process of converting information between different forms

Question 2

how did Baddeley (1996) research coding?

Answer 2

gave different lists of words to 4 groups of participants and asked to recall them in the correct prder
1. acoustically similar: cat cab can
2. acoustically dissimilar: pit few cow
3. semantically similar: great large big
4. semantically dissimilar: good huge hot

Question 3

what were baddeleys (1996) findings?

Answer 3

when recalling from STM, they did worse with acoustically similar words and after a time interval of 20 mins, recalling from LTM, they did worse with semantically similar words

shows info is coded ACOUSTICALLY in STM and SEMANTICALLY in LTM

Question 4

baddeley evaluation: (strength) how does it show there are 2 separate memory stores?

Answer 4

it shows there are separate memory stores (helped to understand the multi-store model) as STM uses acoustic coding and LTM uses semantic coding

Question 5

baddeley evaluation: (limitation) how does it show that there is limited application?

Answer 5

it used artificial stimuli rather than meaningful material so limited application
the word lists had no meaning to participants meaning his findings may not tell us much about coding in everyday life memory tasks (may use semantic coding for STM tasks)

Question 6

what is capacity?

Answer 6

the amount of information that can be stored in the various memory stores

Question 7

how did jacobs (1887) research capacity and what were his findings?

Answer 7

measured digit span: read 4 digits out loud for participant to recall, added digits until participants could not recall the order correctly
found the mean span for digits was 9.3 and the mean span for letters was. 7.3

Question 8

evaluation: (strength) how is it a valid study for digit span?

Answer 8

it has been replicated and therefore is a valid study for digit span(by boop and verhaeghen 2005)
his experiment lacked controls (a confounding variable is that some participants may have been distracted and therefore the spans were underestimated)

Question 9

how did miller (1956) investigate the capacity of STM?

Answer 9

found that things come in groups of 7 (days of the week, musical notes on a scale)
believed the capacity was 7+- 2 items (5-9) and we do this by chunking

Question 10

what is chunking?

Answer 10

grouping sets of digits or letters into units or chunks

Question 11

evaluation: (limitation) how did he overestimate Stm capacity (allegedly)

Answer 11

he may have overestimated STM capacity
cowan (2011) concluded that the capacity is about 4 +-1 items

Question 12

what is duration?

Answer 12

the length of time information can be held in memory

Question 13

what is the duration of STM? ( Peterson and Peterson 1959)

Answer 13

18 secs unless we do verbal rehearsal
(participant was asked to remember 3 letters e.g YGZ and asked to count backwards subtracting 3 from a 3 digit number e.g 724 and were told to stop after varying times [3,6,9,12,15,18] and recall the 3 letters)

Question 14

evaluation: (limitation of p^2 study) how did it lack external validity?

Answer 14

lacked external validity
the stimuli was artificial, although we remember meaning material e.g phone numbers, it is not representative of everyday memory tasks

Question 15

what is the duration of LTM? (Bahrick et al.)

Answer 15

studied 392 students and tested their recall ability from highschool yearbooks (photo recognition test of classmates, recall test of classmates names)
participants tested within 15 years of grad were 90% etc
showing LTM capacity is up to a lifetime

Question 16

evaluation: (strength of bahrick et al.’s study) how does it have high external validity?

Answer 16

has high external validity
researched investigated meaningful memories (people’s names and faces) and when studies on LTM used meaningless pics, recall rates were lower
suggest his findings reflect a real estimate of the duration of STM

Question 17

what is the multi-store model of memory? (atkinson n shiffrin 1968/1971)

Answer 17

a representation of how memory works in terms of 3 stores called the sensory register, STM and LTM
and shows how information is transferred from one store to another

Question 18

What does the MSM say about the sensory register?

Answer 18

• all stimuli from the environment pass into the SR
• 2 main stores (a store for each sense): iconic memory for visual information and echoing memory for acoustic information
• duration: less than 1/2 a second
• capacity = very high
  KEY PROCESS IS ATTENTION to transfer information further into the memory system

Question 19

What does MSM say about STM?

Answer 19

limited capacity store, 7+-2
coded acoustically
maintenance rehearsal occurs when we repeat material to ourselves and can keep in our STM as long as rehearsed
passes into LTM if rehearsed long enough

Question 20

evaluation: (limitation of MSM) (shallice and warrington) how was it shown that there is more than 1 type of STM?

Answer 20

there is more than one type of STM
shallice and warrington (1970) studied KF
KF had poor STM when digits were read out loud to him but better STM when read by himself
there must be one STm to the process visual info and one to produces auditory info

Question 21

what does MSM say about LTM?

Answer 21

capacity = unlimited and are coded semantically
it has to be transferred back into STM by a process called RETRIEVAL

Question 22

evaluation: (strength for the MSM) how does it show that STM and LT are independent memory stores?

Answer 22

shows STM and LTM are different and independent memory stores
Baddeley (1966) found we tend to mix up words that sound similar using our STMS but mix up words with similar meaning when using our LTMS

Question 23

what is a counterpoint for the strength of the MSM?
how does it show that MSM may not be a valid model of how memory works?

Answer 23

mSM any not be a valid model of how memory works in our everyday lives where we have t9 remember much more meaningful information
experiments used material with no meaning (digits letters )

Question 24

what is one limitation of the MSM? how does it suggest that the MSM is wrong to claim there is only 1 STM store?

Answer 24

suggests the MSM is wrong in claiming there is only 1 STM store process different types of information
KF had amnesia, his STM for digits was poor when read out to him but excellent when he read to himself

Question 25

what is another limitation of the MSM? how does it not fully explain how long term storage is achieved?

Answer 25

MSM does not fully explain how long term storage is achieved
MSM says the amount of rehearsal is important but it was found that the type is more important
elaborative rehearsal is needed for long term storage, meaning information can be transferred to LTM without prolonged rehearsal

Question 26

what are the types of long term memory that Tulving (1985) proposed?

Answer 26

episodic memory
semantic memory
procedural memory

Question 27

what is episodic memory?

Answer 27

LTM store that refers to our ability to recall personal events from our lives

time stamped: rmr when they happened and what happened

includes (complex) memories of people objects places and behaviours involved

memories have to be retrieved consciously and with effort

Question 28

what is semantic memory?

Answer 28

LTM store that contains our shared knowledge of the world
less personal and more about the facts we all share
(e.g meaning of words and hard concepts e.g animals and love)
not time stamped
tulving states it is less vulnerable to distortion and forgetting than episodic memory

Question 29

what is procedural memory?

Answer 29

LTM store for our knowledge of how to do things, contains memories of our learned skills
recall these memories without conscious awareness or much effort
e.g driving a car

Question 30

what is one strength of the different types of LTM?
how does it show there are different types of LTM?

Answer 30

strength: HM and Clive Wearing
episodic memory were severely damaged due to brain damage but their semantic memories were unaffected (understood meaning of words e.g HM not recalling touching a dog 30 mins earlier but did remember the concept of a dog) and their procedural memory was intact (wearing still knew how to play piano and sing)
supports that there are different types of LTM

Question 31

what is a counterpoint to the clinical evidence of the different types of LTM?
how does it lack variables and limits what the CS tells us about different types of LTM?

Answer 31

limitation: lack of variables
limits what CS can tell us abt different types of LTM

researcher had no way of controlling what happened to the patient before or during the injury therefore the R has no knowledge of the individuals memory before the damage
and it is difficult to judge exactly how much worse it is afterwards

Question 32

what is one limitation of the different types of LTM?
what are the conflicting research findings linking types of LTM to areas of the brain

Answer 32

there are conflicting research findings linking types of LTM to areas of the brain
Buckner and Peterson (1996) concluded the semantic memory is located on the left side of the prefrontal cortex and episodic memory on the right
but other researchers link the left prefrontal cortex with encoding of episodic melodies and the right with episodic retrieval

challenging neuropsychological evidence to short toes of memory as there is poor agreement on where each type is located

Question 33

what is another strength of the different types LTM?
how does understand LTM allow psychologists to help people with memory problems?

Answer 33

understanding types of LTM allows psychologists to help people with memory problems
belleville et al.did intervention to improve episodic memory in older people and the trained participants performed better than those w no training
shows distinguishing the tween types of LTM enables specific treatments to be developed

Question 34

what is the Working memory model and what are its components?

Answer 34

baddeley and hitch (1974) a representation of STM, suggests that it is a dynamic process of different types of information using subunits coordinated by a central decision making system
central executive
phonological loop
Visio-spatial sketchpad
episodic buffer

Question 35

what is the role of the central executive?

Answer 35

has a ‘supervisory’ role
monitors incoming data and allocates subsystems to tasks
Limited capacity, does not store information

Question 36

what is the role of the phonological loop?
what it is subdivided into?

Answer 36

deals with auditory information (coding is acoustic) and preserves the order in which info arrives

subdivided into
phonological store which stores the words that you hear
articulatory process which allows maintenance rehearsal (repeating words to keep them in working memory while they are needed) the capacity of the loop is 2 secs worth of what you can say

Question 37

what is the role of the visio-spatial sketchpad ?
what is it subdivided into?

Answer 37

stores visual and/or spatial info when required
has a limited capacity which is about 3/4 objects

subdivided into
visual cache: stores visual data
inner scribe: records the arrangement of objects in the visual field

Question 38

what is the role of the episodic buffer?

Answer 38

addded in the model by baddeley in 2000
temporary store for info, integrating the visual, spatial and verbal info process by other stores and maintaining a sense of time sequencing
seen as storage component of CE and has a limited capacity of 4 chunks

Question 39

what is one strength of the WMM? how does it suggest the existence of separate visual and acoustic memory stores?

Answer 39

support from shallice and warrington (1970)
suggests the existence of separate visual and acoustic memory stores
KF poor STM ability for audio Ty info but processed visual info normal
PL was damaged but VSS was still intact

Question 40

what is another strength of the WMM? (dual task performance) how does it support the separate existence of the VSS?

Answer 40

supports separate existence of the VSS
Baddeley carried out test: pots carried out both visual tasks the performance declined substantially as both tasks were competing for the same subsystem whereas there is no competition with a verbal and visual task together

shows VSS is a separate subsystem

Question 41

what is one limitation of the CE? how is there a lack of clarity over the nature of the CE?

Answer 41

lack of clarity over the nature of the CE
Baddeley said it is the most important but least understood component
it needs to be more clearly specified and this challenges the integrity of the WMM
Can be used as evidence to explain universal results for an experiment making the results not valid as it it not known how the CE truly functions

Question 42

what are the 2 types of interference?

Answer 42

proactive interference
retroactive interference

Question 43

what is proactive interference?

Answer 43

occurs when older memory interferes with a newer one

e.g teacher has learned so many names in the past they have difficulty remembering names of their current class

Question 44

what is retroactive interference?

Answer 44

when a newer memory interferes with an older one

e.g teacher has learned so many new names this year, they forget the names of their old class

Question 45

how did Mcgeoch and Donald (1931) discover that interference is worse when memories/learning are similar?

Answer 45

changed the amount of similarity between 2 sets of materials, pot had to learn a list of 10 words until they could remember hem with 100% accuracy, then learned a new list (6 groups learned a diff type of new lists
group 1: synonyms
group 2: antonyms
group 3: words unrelated to the original ones
group 4: consonant syllable
group 5: 3 digit numbers
group 6: no new list, ppts just rested (control)

Question 46

what were the findings of Mcgeoch and Donald? (1931)

Answer 46

when the ppts were asked to recall the original list of words, the most similar material (synonyms) produced the worst recall showing that interference is strongest when the memories are similar

could be due to PI, where the new similar information is hard to store or due to RI, new info overwrites previous similar memories

Question 47

evaluation: (strength) how is there evidence of interference effects in more everyday situations?
what does it show?

Answer 47

evidence of interference in more everyday situation
baddeley and hitch (1977) asked rugby players to recall names of opposing teams they played
number of intervening games varied but players who played the most games had the poorest recall (most interference for memory)

shows interference can operate in at least some real world situations, increasing validity of the theory

Question 48

(counterpoint for this strength)
how does it suggest that most forgetting may be better explained by other theories e.g retrieval failure due to lack of cues?

Answer 48

it is unusual that interference may cause forgetting in everyday situations as conditions necessary for I to occur is rare
in lab studies researcher can create ideal conditions for interference but in real life 2 memories have to be similar to interfere with each other (not often)

shows most forgetting may be better explained by other theories e.g retrieval failure due to lack of cues

Question 49

(limitation) how is interference temporary and overcome by using cues?
what does it show?

Answer 49

tulving and psotka (1971) gave ppts lists of words organised into categories, one list at a time (not told what categories were)
recall averaged 70% but became worse as ppts learned an additional list
at end, ppts were given a cued recall test where they were told the names of the categories and recall rose agin to 70%

shows that interference caused a temporary loss of accessibility to material that is still in LTM, a finding not predicted by interference theory

Question 50

(strength) how does it show that forgetting can be due to interference?

Answer 50

retrograde facilitation:
coenen and luijitelaar (1997) gave ppts a list of words and asked them to recall the list assuming the intervening experiences would act as interference but they found that when the words were learned under the influence of a drug diazepam, recall a week later was poor (compared with a placebo control group)

when the list was learned before the drug was taken, a week later recall improved
this suggests the drug prevents new information reaching part of the brain involved in processing memories so it cannot interfere retroactively with info already stored

shows forgetting can be due to interference - reduce interference and forgetting is reduced as well

Question 51

what is retrieval failure?

Answer 51

a form of forgetting where it occurs when we don’t have the necessary cues to access memory

Question 52

what does the encoding specificity principle state?

what happens if the cues available at encoding and retrieval are different?

Answer 52

a cue has to be both
present at encoding (when we learn material)
present at retrieval (when recalled)

there will be some forgetting

Question 53

what is context-dependent forgetting?

Answer 53

recall depends on external cue (weather or place)

Question 54

what is state-dependent forgetting?

Answer 54

recall depends on internal cue (feeling drunk/upset)

Question 55

how was context-dependent forgetting researched? Godden and baddeley (1975)

Answer 55

Godden and baddeley (1975) studied deep-sea divers who work underwater to see if training on land hindered or helped their work underwater
learned a list of words under one of 4 conditions

learn on land - recall on land
learn on land - recall underwater
learn underwater - recall underwater
learn underwater - recall on land

Question 56

what were the findings and conclusions of the context dependent forgetting research?

Answer 56

accurate recall was 40% lower in the non-matching conditions, concluding that the external cues available at learning were different from the ones available at recall which led to retrieval failure

Question 57

how was state-dependent forgetting researched?
cater and cassaday (1998)

Answer 57

carter and cassaday (1998) gave antihistamine drug to their ppts which had a mild sedative effect making the ppts slightly drowsy (created an internal physiological state different from the normal state of being awake and alert
learnt a list of words under one of 4 conditions
learn on drug - recall off drug
learn on drug - recall on drug
learn off drug - recall off drug
learn off drug - recall on drug

Question 58

what were the findings and conclusions of the state dependent forgetting research?

Answer 58

in the conditions where there was a mismatch between internal state at learning and recall, performance on memory test was significantly worse

when cues are absent then tere is more forgetting

Question 59

eval: (strength) how can retrieval cues help us to overcome some forgetting in everyday situations?

Answer 59

Baddeley suggests that when we have trouble remembering something, it is worth making the effort to recall the environment that we learned it in first
(e.g forgetting why u went to a different room and when u go back to the first room, u remember)

shows how research can remind us of strategies we use in real world to improve our recall

Question 60

eval: (strength) what is the research that support the retrieval failure explanation?

Answer 60

Godden + Baddeley, Carter + Cassaday studies show that a lack of relevant cues at recall can lead to context-dependent and state-dependent forgetting in everyday life

Eysenk and Keane (2010) argue that retrieval failure is the main reason for forgetting from LTM

evidence shows that retrieval failure occurs in real world situations as well as highly controlled conditions of the lab

Question 61

eval: what is the counterpoint for this research that supports the retrieval failure explanation?

Answer 61

Baddeley (1997) argues that context effects are no that strong as different contexts have to be very different before an effect is seen.
(hard to find an environment as different as land and underwater, in contrast = learning smth in one room and recalling it in another will not lead to much forgetting as the environments are not different enough)
meaning retrieval failure due to lack of contextual cues may not actually explain much everyday forgetting

Question 62

eval: (limitation) how do context effects depend substantially on the type of memory being tested

Answer 62

Godden + Baddeley (1980) replicated teir underwater experiment but used a recognition test instead of recall
when recognition was tested there was no contxext dependent effect so performance was the same in all conditions

this suggests that retrieval failure is a limited explanation for forgetting because it only applies when a person has to recall info rather than recognise it

Question 63

What is eyewitness testimony?

Answer 63

the ability of people to remember the details of events which they themselves have observed

Question 64

what is misleading information?

Answer 64

incorrect info given to an eyewitness usually after the event
can take many forms e.g leading questions/ post-event discussion

Question 65

what is a leading question?

Answer 65

a question which because of the way it is phrased, suggests a certain answer
e.g “was the knife in his left hand?” leads a person to think thats where the knife was

Question 66

what was the research done on leading questions?

Answer 66

loftus and palmer (1974)
45 participants (students) in 5 groups
Participants were asked to watch film clips of car accidents and then they were asked questions about the accident that they had seen
In the ‘critical questions’ (a leading question or a misleading question),the participants were asked to describe how fast the cars were travelling
Each group was given a different verb in the question (eg hit, contacted, bumped, collided and smashed)

Question 67

what were the findings of the research on leading questions?

Answer 67

The mean estimated speed was calculated for each participant group
When the verb ‘contacted’ was used the speed that they estimated was 31.8 mph, however when the verb ‘smashed’ was used, the mean was 40.5 mph

shows the leading question biased the eyewitness’s recall of an event

Question 68

why do leading questions affect EWT?

Answer 68

The response-bias explanation suggests that the wording of the question has no real effect on the participants’ memories.
With words such as ‘smash’,it encouraged the participants to say that the collision was at a faster speed.

loftus and palmer (1974) Conducted a second experiment, Supported the ‘substitution explanation’- suggests that the wording of the leading question changes the participants memory of the clip
The ‘critical verb’ altered their memory of the crash

Question 69

what is meant by post-event discussion?

Answer 69

occurs when there is more than one witness to an event, where they discuss what they have seen with each other which may influence the accuracy of each witness’s recall of the event

Question 70

what was the research done on post-event discussion?

Answer 70

Fiona Gabbert et al. (2003) studied participants in pairs, where each watched a video of the same crime but filmed from different POV’s. This meant that each participant could see elements in the event that the other could not
E.g only one participant could see the title of the book a women was carrying
Both participants then discussed what they had seen before individually completing a test of recall

Question 71

what were the findings of the research done on post-event discussion?

Answer 71

71% of participants mistakenly recalled elements of the video that they did not see in the video but had picked up in discussion.
The corresponding figure in a control group, where there was no discussion, was 0% —> evidence of memory conformity

Question 72

why does post-event discussion affect EWT?

Answer 72

• memory contamination: When co-witnesses to a crime discuss it with each other, the eyewitness testimonies may become altered or distorted . This is because they combine (mis)information from other witnesses with their own memories.
• memory conformity: Gabbert et al. concluded witnesses often go along with each other, either to win social approval or because they believe the other witnesses are right and they are wrong. Unlike memory contamination, the actual memory is unchanged.

Question 73

eval: (strength) how does misleading information have important practical uses in the criminal justice system?

Answer 73

As the consequences of inaccurate EWT can be serious, loftus (1975) believes that leading questions have such a distorting effect on memory that police officers need to be careful on how their questions are phrased
psychologists sometimes are asked to act as expert witness in court trails and explain the limits of EWT to juries

shows that psychologists can help to improve the way the legal system works especially by protecting innocent people from faulty convictions based on unreliable EWT

Question 74

What is a counterpoint for this strength? how does it show that EWT may be more dependable than studies suggest?

Answer 74

practical applications may be affected by issues with research
e.g loftus and palmer ppts watched film clips in a lab, different from witnessing real events (less stressful)
Rachel foster et al. point out that what eyewitnesses remember has important consequences in the real world, but ppts responses in research do not matter the same way ( so research ppts are less motivated to be accurate)

suggests that researches such as loftus are too pessimistic about the effects of misleading information and EWT may be more dependable than studies suggest

Question 75

(limitation of substitution expanation) how is EWT more accurate for some aspects of an event than others?

Answer 75

Sutherland and Hayne (2011) showed ppts a video clip and when ppts were later asked misleading questions, their recall was more accurate for central details of the event than for peripheral ones
(their attention was focused on central features of the event and these memories were relatively resistant to misleading information)

suggests that original memories for central details survived and were not distorted, an outcome that is not predicted by the substitution explanation

Question 76

(limitation of memory conformity) what is the evidence that post-event discussion actually alters EWT?

Answer 76

skagerberg and wright (2008) showed their ppts film clips (2 versions: e.g a mugger’s hair was dark brown in one but light brown in the other)
ppts discussed the clips in pairs, each seeing diff versions, they often did not report what they had seen but a blend of the two (e.g common answer was medium brown, not light or dark)

suggests that the memory itself is distorted through contamination by misleading post-event discussion rather than a result of memory conformity

Question 77

what is anxiety?

Answer 77

a state of emotional and physical arousal
emotions include having worried thoughts and feelings of tension
physical changes = increased heart rate and sweatiness

Question 78

what was the aim of johnson and scott’s (1976) research on anxiety?

Answer 78

johnson and scott (1976) did research on
how the presence of weapon creates anxiety and this leads to a focus o the weapon, reducing a witness’s recall for other details in the event

Question 79

how does anxiety have a negative effect on recall? (due to weapon focus)

Answer 79

Johnson and scott’s (1976) ppts believed they were participating in a lab study
ppts in a waiting room in the low anxiety condition: saw a man walk past with grease on his hands carrying a pen
in the high anxiety condition: overheard a heated argument, the sound of glass breaking and saw a man holding a knife covered in blood

Question 80

what were the findings of the experiment done on how anxiety has a negative effect on recall?

Answer 80

ppts later picked out the man from a set of 50 photos
49% who saw the man carrying the pen were able to identify him, whereas only 33% saw the man with the bloody knife
the tunnel theory of memory argues that people have enhanced memory for central events and weapon focus as a result of anxiety can have this effect

Question 81

what was the experiment conducted on how anxiety has a positive effect on recall?

Answer 81

anxiety triggers the fight/flight response, increasing alertness and may improve memory

yuille and cutshall (1986) conducted a study of an actual shooting in a gun shop in vancouver canada
where he owner shot a thief dead
13/21 witnesses took part and were interviewed 4-5 months later and compared to original police intervews at the time
accuracy was determined by how many details were recalled and also were asked to rate how stressed they were on a 7 point scale

Question 82

what were the findings of the experiment conducted on how anxiety has a positive effect on recall?

Answer 82

witnesses were v accurate although some details were less accurate such as recollection of colour items and age/height/weight estimates

the ppts that ere the most stressed were most accurate (88% compared t less stressed 75%)

suggests that anxiety does not have a detrimental effect on the accuracy of EWT

Question 83

how can the contradictory findings of anxiety’s effect on recall be explained?

Answer 83

yerkes-dodson law (inverted U)
when witnessing a crime, we experince anxiety (emotional) and fight/flight response

lower levels of A = lower levels of recall accuracy, the memory becomes mor accurate as level of A increases but there is an optimum level of A, where if a person experiences more arousal/anxiety, recall declines

Question 84

(limitation of the study done on weapon focus) how did the study not test for anxiety?

Answer 84

reason why ppts may have been focused on the weapon was because of UNUSUALNESS as they were surprised and not scared
pickel (1998) conducted an experiment using scissors, handgun, wallet, raw chicken in a hairdressing salon
(scissors = high anxiety low unusualness)

eyewitness accuracy was significantly poorer in high unusualness suggesting weapon focus effect is due to unusualness rather than anxiety/threat

Question 85

(Strength for negative effects) what is the evidence supporting the view that anxiety has the negative effect on the accuracy of recall?

Answer 85

valentine and mesout (2009) supports the research on weapon focus
researchers used heart rate (objective measure) to divide ppts into high anxiety and low anxiety groups

in this study anxiety disrupted the ppts’ ability to recall details about the actor in the london dungeon labyrinth
(17% of high anxiety group identified correctly, 75% correct identification by the low anxiety group)

suggests high level of anxiety does have an negative effect on the immediate EW recall of a stressful event

Question 86

(strength for positive effects) what is the evidence that anxiety can have a positive effect on the accuracy of recall

Answer 86

christianson and hubinette interviewed 58 witnesses to actual bank robberies in sweden
some witnesses were directly involved (bank workers) others were indirectly (bystanders)
it was assumed that those directly involved would experience the most anxiety but recall was more than 75% accurate across all witnesses, direct victims, most anxious, were more accurate

findings form actual crimes confirm that anxiety does not reduce the accuracy of recall from eyewitnesses and may even enhance it

Question 87

what is cognitive interview?

what are the 4 stages of CI?

Answer 87

a method of interviewing eyewitnesses to help them retrieve more accurate memories

1. REPORT EVERYTHING
   witnesses are encouraged to include every single detail as it may be important and trigger other memories
2. REINSTATE THE CONTEXT
   witness should return to the original crime scene in their mind and imagine the environment and their emotions (related to context-dependent forgetting)
3. REVERSE THE ORDER
   events should be recalled in a different order, which is done t prevent the report their expectations of how the event must have happened and prevents dishonesty
4. CHANGE PERSPECTIVE
   witnesses should recall the incident from another perspective, done to disrupt the effect of expectations and the effect of schema (generates the expectations of what would have happened and is recalled instead of actual events)

Question 88

what is the enhanced CI?

Answer 88

fisher et al. developed additional elements:
interviewer needs to know when to establish eye contact and when to relinquish it
includes: minimising distractions, getting witness to speak slowly, asking open-ended questions

Question 89

(strength) what is evidence that the CI works?

Answer 89

meta-analysis done by köhnken et al. (1999) combined data from 55 studies comparing the CI with the standard police interview
CI gave 41% increase in accurate info compared w the standard
shows that the CI is an effective technique in helping witnesses to recall info that is stored in memory but not immediately accessible

Question 90

what is a counterpoint for this strength?

Answer 90

köhnken et al. found an increase in the amount of inaccurate info recalled by ppts
cognitive interview may sacrifice quality of EWT (accuracy) in favour of quantity (amount of details)

means police officers should treat eyewitnesses evidence from CI

Question 91

(limitation of the original CI) how are not all of its elements are equally effective or useful?

Answer 91

Milne and Bull (2002) found that each of the 4 techniques alone produced more info than the standard interview
found that a combination of REPORT EVERYTHING and REINSTATE THE CONTEXT produced better recall
confirmed police officers’ suspicions that some aspects of the CI are more useful than others

casts some doubt on the credibility of the overall CI

Question 92

(limitation) how is the CI time-consuming?

Answer 92

police officers may be reluctant as it takes more time and training

this suggests that the complete CI is not a realistic method and it is better to focus on just a few key elements