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Cardiovascular, Pulmonary, and Hepatic Physiology > Pulmonary Physiology (2) > Flashcards

Pulmonary Physiology (2) Flashcards

1
Q

when does exhalation start?

A

when the inspiratory muscles relax

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2
Q

describe the process of exhalation (5)

A
  1. diaphragm relaxes and the dome moves up bc of elasticity
  2. as external interrcostals relax, the ribs are depressed
  3. the above movements decrease the vertical, lateral, and anterioposterior diameters of the thoracic cavity which decreases lung volume
  4. alveolar pressure increases to about 762 mmHG
  5. air then flows from area of higher pressure in alveoli to area of lower pressure in atmosphere
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3
Q

when does exhalation become active?

A

during forceful breathing

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4
Q

describe exhalation during forceful breathing (3)

A
  1. abdominals and intercostals contract, increasing pressure in abdominal region and thorax
  2. contraction of abdominals moves inferior ribs downward and compresses abdominal viscera, forcing diaphragm up
  3. contraction of internal intercostals pulls ribs inferiorly
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5
Q

why does surface tension arise at all air-water interfaces?

A

water molecules are more strongly attracted to each other than they are to the gas molecules in the air

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6
Q

what does surface tension cause in the lungs?

A

in the lungs, surface tnesion causes the alveoli to assume the smallest possible diameter

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7
Q

what must be overcome during breathing to expand lungs during each inhalation?

A

surface tension of alveoli

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8
Q

what proportion of elastic recoil does surface tension account for and what does this do?

A

surface tension accounts for 2/3 of elastic recoil which decreases the size of alveoli during exhalation

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9
Q

describe what happens regarding surface tension during resipiratory distress syndrome and what this results in

A

during RDS, surface tension of alveoli fluid is greatly increased (due to lack of surfactant) and many alveoli collapse at the end of exhalation, requiring a greater effort at the next inhalation

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10
Q

what is the compliance of the lungs?

A

how much effort is required to stretch lungs and chest wall

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11
Q

what does a high compliance mean?

A

lungs and chest wall expand easily

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12
Q

what does low compliance mean?

A

lungs and chest wall resist expansion

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13
Q

what 2 principal factors is compliance related to?

A
  1. elasticity
  2. surface tension
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14
Q

describe the compliance of healthy lungs; include descriptions of elasticity and surface tension

A

healthy lungs have high compliance, with elastic fibers that are easily stretched and surfactant to reduce surface tension

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15
Q

what kind of pulmonary conditions decrease compliance? (4)

A

conditions that
1. scar lung tissue (TB)
2. cause lung tissue to become filled with fluid (pulmonary edema)
3. produce deficiency in surfactant
4. impede lung expansion (intercostal paralysis)
decrease compliance

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16
Q

what is COPD?

A

chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; chronic issue with airflow

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17
Q

what is a type of COPD?

A

emphysema

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18
Q

describe emphysema (4)

A
  1. destruction of walls of alveoli produces abnormally large air spaces that remain filled with air during exhalation
  2. this causes less surface area for gas exchange and reduces O2 diffusion across damaged respiratory membranes
  3. lowered blood O2 levels means mild exercise can cause breathlessness
  4. lung elastic recoil decreases because loss of elastic fiber, this increases the amount of air trapped in lungs at the end of exhalation
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19
Q

what is emphysema generally caused by?

A

long-term irritation

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20
Q

what is an outside sign usually observed in emphysema and why?

A

barrel chest; the reduced elastic recoil requires the individual to push harder to breathe, so the chest recoils less and results in barrel chest

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21
Q

what causes airflow?

A

pressure differences between alveoli and atmosphere divided by resistance

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22
Q

what offers some resistance to normal airflow in and out of lungs?

A

bronchioles

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23
Q

what happens to the bronchioles and related to resistance during inhalation?

A

lungs expand and bronchioles enlarge, decreasing resistance

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24
Q

what happens to the bronchioles and related to resistance during exhalation?

A

diameter of bronchioles decreases, so airway resistance increases

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25
Q

what is airway diameter regulated by other than inhalation and exhalation?

A

the degree of contraction/relaxation of smooth muscles in airway walls

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26
Q

what causes relaxations of smooth muscle in airway walls and what is the result?

A

sympathetic stimulation causes relaxation of smooth muscle and decreases resistance

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27
Q

what increases airway resistance? why? give an example

A

any condition that obstructs airways because more pressure is required for airflow; COPD is an example of increased airway resistance due to obstruction or collapsed airways

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28
Q

what is eupnea?

A

normal patter of quiet breathing

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29
Q

what is costal breathing? what causes it?

A

pattern of shallow (chest) breathing; upward and outward movement of chest due to contraction of external inercostal muscles

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30
Q

what is diaphragmatic breathing? what causes it?

A

deep, abdominal breathing; outward movement of abdomen due to contraction and descent of diaphragm

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31
Q

what causes yawning? physiologically

A

unsure exactly, but we know the stretching and face and neck muscles shifts bloow flowand brings in colder air, kind of like AC for the body

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32
Q

why is yawning contagious?

A

thought is that the first yawn is a sign of some sort of stress and the response is to yawn back as a sign of empathy for others

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33
Q

what is yawning in dogs?

A

a displacement activity

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34
Q

how many breaths per minute does a health adult average?

A

12 breaths-min

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35
Q

how much air is moved with each inhalation and exhalation in a healthy adult?

A

500ml in, 500 ml out

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36
Q

what is tidal volume (Vt)?

A

volume of one breath

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37
Q

what is minute ventilation (MV)?

A

total volume of air inhaled and exhaled each minute

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38
Q

how is minute ventilation calculated?

A

MV = resp rate x tidal volume

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39
Q

if resp rate is 12 breaths/min and tidal volume is 500 ml, what should minute ventilation be in a healthy adult?

A

MV = resp rate x Vt so 12 x 500 is 6L/min minute ventilation in a healthy adult

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40
Q

if an adult has a minute ventilation lower than 6L/min, what is this usually a sign of?

A

pulmonary malfunction

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41
Q

what is a spirometer?

A

an apparatus used to measure the volume of air exchanged during breathing and respiratory rate

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42
Q

how is inhalation and exhalation detected on a spirometer?

A

inhalation is detected as upward deflection and exhalation is detected as downward deflection

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42
Q

is tidal volume a constant value?

A

heck no; varies considerably between individuals and also within the same person at different times

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43
Q

how much of tidal volume actually reaches the respiratory zone?

A

appriximately 70% (or 350mL in average healthy adult)

44
Q

what happens to the other 30% (150mL) of tidal volume that does not reach the respiratory zone?

A

remains in the conductin zone

45
Q

describe respiratory (anatomic) dead space

A

conducting airways with air that does not undergo respiratory exchange

46
Q

how do you determine your respiratory (anatomic) dead space?

A

is about the same in mL as your ideal weight in pounds

47
Q

is all minute ventilation used in gas exchange?

A

no; some stays in the respiratory (anatomic) dead space

48
Q

what is alveolar ventilation rate?

A

the volume of air per minute that actually raches the respiratory zone

49
Q

calculate the alveolar ventilation rate of an average healthy adult

A

if 350mL reaches respiratory zone per min and resp rate is 12 breaths per minute then alveolar ventilation rate is 4200mL per minute for an average healthy adult

50
Q

how are most lung volumes defined?

A

relative to forceful breathing

51
Q

in what 3 cases are most lung volumes larger?

A
  1. males
  2. taller people
  3. younger people
52
Q

in what 3 cases are most lung volumes smaller?

A
  1. females
  2. shorter people
  3. elderly
53
Q

how can come pulmonary disorders be diagnosed?

A

by comparison of actual versus predicted lung volume values based on gender, height, age

54
Q

what is inspiratory reserve volume?

A

taking a very deep breath, then breathing in even more (more than avg 500mL)

55
Q

what is the average inspiratory reserve volume in the average adult male and female?

A

average adult male: aprox 3100mL
average adult female: approx 1900mL

56
Q

what is expiratory reserve volume?

A

exhale normally and then exhale as forcefully as possible, pushing out considerably more than 500mL of air

57
Q

what is average expiratory reserve volume in adult male and female?

A

average adult male: approx 1200mL
average adult female: approx 700mL

58
Q

what is FEV1.0?

A

forced expiratory volume in 1 second; the volume of air that can be exhaled from lungs in 1 second with max effort following a max inhalation

59
Q

describe FEV1.0 with COPD and why

A

greatly decreased FEV1.0 when have COPD because of increased airway resistance

60
Q

what is residual volume?

A

the air remaining in the lungs after expiratory reserve volume is exhaled

61
Q

what is residual volume in average adult male and female?

A

average adult male: approx 1200mL
average adult female: approx 1100mL

62
Q

why is residual volume so large?

A

considerable air remains in the lungs because subatmospheric intrapleural presure keeps the alveoli slightly inflated

63
Q

what happens regarding residual volume if the thoracic cavity is opened in any way?

A

intrapleural presure rises to equal atmospheric pressure and forces out some of the residual volume, leaving behind what is called minimal volume

64
Q

what does minimal volume provide and why?

A

a useful medical/legal tool that can help determine is a baby is still born or died after birth

65
Q

how is the presence of minimal volume demonstrated and what are the legal/medical implications?

A

place a piece of the lung in water and see if it floats; fetal lungs contain no air and so the lungs of a stillborn baby will not float (if the baby died after birth then the lung will float)

66
Q

what is inspiratory capacity? what is it in males?

A

sum of tidal volume and inspiratory reserve volume
in males: 500mL + 3100mL = 3600mL

67
Q

what is functional residual capacity? what is it in males?

A

sum of residual volume and expiratory reverse volume
in males: 1200mL + 1200mL = 2400mL

68
Q

what is vital capacity? what is it in males?

A

sum of inspiratory reserve volume, tidal volume, and expiratory reserve volume
in males: approx 4800mL

69
Q

what is total lung capacity? what is it in females?

A

sum of vital capacity and residual volume
in females: 3100mL + 1100mL = 4200mL

70
Q

how does exchange of O2 and CO2 between alveolar air and pulmonary blood occur? what is it governed by?

A

by passive diffusion; governed by behavior of gases as described by Henry’s and Dalton’s laws

71
Q

what is Dalton’s law?

A

gases move down pressure differences by diffusion

72
Q

what is Henry’s law? (2)

A
  1. the solubility of a gas relateds to its diffusion
  2. the solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the partial pressure of the gas above the liquid
73
Q

what does each gas in a mixture do according to Dalton’s law?

A

each gas in a mixture of gases exerts its own pressure as if no other gases were present

74
Q

what is partial pressure? (Px)

A

the pressure of a specific gas in a mixture

75
Q

how is the total pressure of a mixture of gases calculated?

A

by adding all the partial pressures of all the gases in the mixture

76
Q

if gien the total pressure of a mixture of gases, how do you determine the partial pressure of a gas in that mixture?

A

multiply the percentage of the gas in the mixture by total pressure of the mixture

77
Q

what is earth’s atmosphere made up of?

A

78.6% nitrogen
20.9% oxygen
0.93% argon
0.04% carbon dioxied
0.06% other

78
Q

how does the amount of water vapor in earth’s atmosphere vary?

A

0% over the desert but 4% over the ocean

79
Q

describe Dalton’s law as relates to movement of O2 and CO2

A

partial pressure determines movement of O2 and CO2 between atmosphere and lungs, between lungs and blood, and between blood and body cells

80
Q

how does each gas in the body diffuse?

A

each gas diffuses across a permeable membrane from an area where the partial pressure is greater to an area where its partial pressure is less

81
Q

relate the difference in partial pressure to rate of diffusion

A

the greater the difference in partial pressure, the faster the rate of diffusion

82
Q

compare alveolar air to inhaled air in terms of O2 and CO2 and and how this happens

A

alveolar air has less O2 and mroe CO2 than inhaled air; gas exchange in alveoli increases CO2 and decreases O2 content of alveolar air

83
Q

why does relative % of oxygen decrease with inhalation?

A

when air is inhaled, it becomes humidified as it passes along moist mucosal linings; as water vapor content increases, the relative % of oxygen decreases

84
Q

compare exhaled air to alveolar air in terms of O2 and CO2 and explain why

A

exhaled air contains more O2 and less CO2 than alveolar air; this is because some of the exhaled air was in the anatomic dead space and did not participate in gas exchage

85
Q

what is exhaled air a mix of?

A

exhaled air is a mixture of alevolar air and inhaled air that was in the anatomic dead space

86
Q

relate Henry’s law to body fluids

A

the ability of a gas to stay in solution is greater when its partial pressure is higher and when it has high solubility in water

87
Q

why is CO2 much more dissolved in plasma than O2?

A

the solubility of CO2 is 24x greater than O2

88
Q

describe N2 solubility in plasma and what this means about our knowledge of its function

A

N2 has very low solubility in plasma, so very little dissolves in blood plasma at sea level pressure, so we do not know of any effects of N2 on bodily functions

89
Q

what happens to the partial pressure of all gases in air as total air pressure increases?

A

as total air pressure increases, the partial pressure of all its gases increases

90
Q

why do scuba divers need to be careful regarding nitrogen?

A

the breathe highly compressed air (increased pressure), so the partial pressure of the nitrogen in the mixture in higher in compressed air than in air at sea level and a considerable amount of nitrogen then dissolves in plasma

91
Q

what can happen as a result of too muhc dissolved nitrogen in blood plasma?

A

giddiness, or alcohol intoxication-like effects in what is called nitrogen narcosis or rapture of the deep

92
Q

when does nitrogen narcosis occur? what do we know about the physiology?

A

occurs at depths of 100 feet and deeper; not much is known about the physiology but thought to affect CNS

93
Q

what happens to nitrogen dissolved in blood plasma if a diver comes up to surface slowly?

A

dissolved nitrogen can be eliminated by exhaling it

94
Q

what happens to nitrogen dissolved in blood plasma if a diver ascends too rapidly?

A

nitrogen comes out of the plasma solution too quickly and forms gas bubbles in tissues, leading to decompression sickness or “the bends”

95
Q

what do effects of decompression sickness or “the bends” usually results from?

A

from the bubbles in nervous tissue

96
Q

what are 6 symptoms of the bends?

A
  1. joint pain
  2. dizziness
  3. shortness of breath
  4. extreme fatigue
  5. paralysis
  6. unconsciousness
97
Q

how is decompression sickness (the bends) treated?

A

hyperbaric oxygen therapy

98
Q

what is external respiration?

A

pulmonary gas exchange

99
Q

describe external respiration

A

diffusion of O2 from air in alveoli to blood in pulmonary capillaries and diffusion of CO2 in the opposite direction

100
Q

what does external respiration do?

A

converts deoxygenated blood coming from R side of heart into oxygenated blood that returns to the L side of the heart

101
Q

how do gases diffuse during external respiration

A

each gas diffuses independently from area where its partial pressure is higher to an area where its partial pressure is lower

102
Q

what is the partial pressure of O2 in alveolar air? what is the partial pressure of O2 in pulmonary capillary blood? what does this mean and how does this change while exercising?

A

105mmHg in alveolar air
40 mmHg in pulmonary capillary blood
so O2 diffuses from alveolar air into pulmonary capillaries; while exercising, PO2 in pulmonary capillary blood will be even lower because contracting muscles are using more O2

103
Q

how long does diffusion of O2 from alveoli air into pulmonary bapillary blood continue?

A

until PO2 of pulmonary capillary blood rises to match PO2 of alveolar air (105mmHg)

104
Q

contrast PO2 of pulmonary capillaries to pulmonary veins

A

PO2 of blood in pulmonary veins is slightly less (100mmHg) than PO2 of blood in pulmonary capillaries (105mmHG) becayse blood leaving pulmonary capillaries near alveolar air spaces mixes with a small amount of blood tht has flowed through the conducting part of the respiratory system (where gas exchange does not occur)

105
Q

what is PCO2 in alveolar air? in deoxygenated blood? what does this mean?

A

PCO2 in deoxygenated blood is 45mmHg at rest; PCO2 of alveolar air is 40 mmHg; so CO2 is diffusing from deoxygenated blood to alveolar air due to pressure differences in PCO2

106
Q

how long does CO2 diffuse from deoxygenated blood into alveoli?

A

until PCO2 of deoxy blood decreases to 40mmHg

107
Q

what is the PCO2 of oxygenated blood returning from the left side of the heart in pulmonary veins and why?

A

PCO2 of blood returning from the left side of the heart in pulmonary veins has a PCO2 of 40mmHg because exhalation keeps alveolar PCO2 at 40mmHh

Cardiovascular, Pulmonary, and Hepatic Physiology (12 decks)

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