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Cardiovascular, Pulmonary, and Hepatic Physiology > Pulmonary Physiology (1) > Flashcards

Pulmonary Physiology (1) Flashcards

1
Q

list the 6 major parts of the respiratory system from top to bottom

A
  1. nose
  2. pharynx
  3. larynx (voice box)
  4. trachea
  5. bronchi
  6. lungs
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2
Q

what are the 2 ways to classify the respiratory system?

A
  1. structure
  2. functions
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3
Q

list and describe the two structural divisions of the respiratory system

A
  1. upper resipiratory system: nose, nasal cavity, pharynx, associated structures
  2. lower respiratory system: larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs
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4
Q

what are the 2 function divisions of the respiratory system?

A
  1. conducting zone
  2. respiratory zone
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5
Q

describe the conducting zone?

A

aeries of interconnecting cavities and tubes outside and within the lungs

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6
Q

what 8 structures are in the conducting zone?

A
  1. nose
  2. nasal cavity
  3. pharynx
  4. larynx
  5. trachea
  6. bronchi
  7. bronchioles
  8. terminal bronchioles
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7
Q

what is the function of the conducting zone?

A

filter, warm, and moisten air and conduct it to the lungs

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8
Q

what is the respiratory zone?

A

tubes and tissues within the lungs where gas exchange occurs

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9
Q

what 4 structures are in the respiratory zone?

A
  1. respiratory bronchioles
  2. alveolar ducts
  3. alveolar sacs
  4. alveoli
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10
Q

what is the function of the respiratory zone?

A

main site of gas exchange between air and blood

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11
Q

what is otorhinolaryngology?

A

branch of medicine that deals with diagnosis and treatent of diseases of ears, nose, and throat

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12
Q

what is a pulmonologist?

A

specialist in diagnosis and treatment of diseases of lungs

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13
Q

what do the R and L primary bronchi branch off from and where?

A

branch off from the trachea at the 5th thoracic vertebrae

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14
Q

compare the R primary bronchis to the L

A

R primary bronchus is more vertical, shorter, and wider than the L because the liver pushes it up

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15
Q

in which bronchus are aspirated objects more likely to get lodged?

A

the Right

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16
Q

what is the carina?

A

the point where the trachea divides into L and R primary bronchi

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17
Q

describe the structure of the carina

A

internal ridge formed by the last tracheal cartilage

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18
Q

describe the mucus membrane of the carina

A

very sensitive to the cough reflex

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19
Q

what happens to the primary bronchi once inside the lungs?

A

they branch and divide forming secondary (lobar), then tertiary (segmental) bronchi before branching into bronchioles

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20
Q

what does the left lung have that makes it 10% smaller than the right lung?

A

the cardiac notch

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21
Q

what is interspersed among the cells of the terminal bronchioles?

A

clara cells

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22
Q

what is the function of the clara cells in the terminal bronchioles? (3)

A
  1. may protect against harmful effects of inhaled toxins/carcinogens
  2. produce surfactant
  3. functions as stem cells for epithelium
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23
Q

what do the terminal bronchioles represent?

A

the end of the conducting zone

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24
Q

what does exercise do, related to the bronchi? (5 step process)

A
  1. stimulates sympathetic ANS
  2. causes adrenal medulla to release epi and norepi
  3. both hormones cause relaxation of smooth muscle in bronchioles
  4. this causes the airways to dilate
  5. this allows air to reach the alveoli quicker
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25
Q

what does an asthma attack do, related to the bronchioles?

A
  1. the release of histamine
  2. causes contraction of bronchiolar smooth muscle
  3. this causes constriction or distal bronchioles
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26
Q

what protects and encloses each lung?

A

a double-layered serous membrane

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27
Q

describe the 2 layers of the pleural membrane

A
  1. parietal layer: superficial
  2. visceral layer: deep
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28
Q

what is the space between the 2 layers of the pleural membrane called?

A

the pleural space

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29
Q

what does the pleural space contain? what is the function?

A

small amount of lubricating fluid from the membranes that reduces friction between the membranes, allowing them to slide easily over each other during breathing

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30
Q

what is pleurisy?

A

inflammation of the lungs; also called pleuritis

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31
Q

what can pleurisy cause and why?

A

may cause pain due to friction between layers of the pleural membrane

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32
Q

what is pleural effusion?

A

in inflammation from pleuritis persists, there may be excess fluid accumulating in the plueral space in a condition called pleural effusion

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33
Q

describe the lungs’ spatial relation to the thoracic cavity

A

take up MOST of the thoracic cavity

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34
Q

where are the lungs?

A

extend from the diaphragm to slightly superior to the clavicles (gigantor)

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35
Q

where do the anterior, lateral, and posterior surfaces of the lungs lie against?

A

the ribs

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36
Q

how far does the pleura extend? what does this mean?

A

the pleura extends about 5cm below the base of the lungs, meaning the lungs don’t completely fill the pleural cavity in that area

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37
Q

what does the excess room in the pleural cavity allow for?

A

excess fluid can be removed from that space without damaging the lungs

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38
Q

what is thoracentesis?

A

inserting a needle anteriorly through the 7th intercostal space, with that needle passing along the superior bornder ot the lower rib to avoid damage to intercostal nerves and blood vessels to remove fluid from the lungs

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39
Q

what are bronchopulmonary segments?

A

segments of lung tissue that each tertiary bronchus supplies

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40
Q

what does each bronchopulmonary segment have?

A

many lobules, or small compartments

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41
Q

describe each lobule of the bronchopulmonary segments

A

wrapped in elastic connective tissue

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42
Q

what does each lobule of the bornchopulmonary segments contain? (4)

A
  1. a lymphatic vessel
  2. an arteriole
  3. a venule
  4. and a branch from a terminal bronchiole
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43
Q

what do terminal bronchioles divide into? what do they have budding from their walls?

A

terminoal bronchioles divide into branches called respiratory bronchioles that have alveoli budding from their walls

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44
Q

what begins the respiratory zone?

A

respiratory bronchioles

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45
Q

what do respiratory bronchioles subdivide into?

A

severla alveolar ducts

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46
Q

approximately how many orders of branching are found in the respiratory passages from trachea into alveolar ducts?

A

approximately 25 orders of branching

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47
Q

what is the 1st order of branching?

A

branching from trachea into primary bronchi

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48
Q

what is an alveolus?

A

a cup shaped outpouching lined by simple squamous epithelium and supported by thin, elastic basement membrane

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49
Q

what is an alveolar sac?

A

2 or more alveoli that share a commonopening

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50
Q

what aare the 2 types of epithelial cells that the walls of alveoli contain?

A

Type I alveolar cells and Type II alveolar cells

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51
Q

describe Type I alveolar cells (2)

A
  1. more numerous than Type II
  2. simple squamous epithelial cells that form a nearly continuous lining of the alveolar wall
52
Q

describe Type II alveolar cells (2)

A
  1. septal cells (more info later)
  2. found between Type I cells
53
Q

describe the walls of Type I alveolar cells

A

thin

54
Q

what is the function of Type I alveolar cells?

A

main site of gas exchange

55
Q

describe the structure of Type II alveolar cells

A

cuboidal (rounded) epithelial cells that contain microvilli

56
Q

what is the function of Type II alveolar cells?

A

secrete alveolar fluid

57
Q

what does alveolar fluid do?

A

keeps surface netween cells and air moist

58
Q

what does surfactant do?

A

reduces tendency of alveoli to collapse and maintains their patency (openness)

59
Q

where is surfactant found?

A

in alveolar fluid

60
Q

what is surfactant?

A

a complex mixture of phospholipids and lipoproteins

61
Q

what is dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine?

A

one of the phospholipids in surfactant; part of the molecule dissolves and the remainder spreads over the water surface

62
Q

compare the surface tension of surfactant to pure water

A

surfactant has 1/12 to 1/2 the surface tension of water, much more slippery

63
Q

where does exchange of O2 and CO2 between air spaces take place and how?

A

by diffusion across alveolar and capillary walls

64
Q

where is the respiratory membrane?

A

extends from alveolar air space to blood plasma

65
Q

what are the 4 layers in the respiratory membrane?

A
  1. alveolar wall
  2. epithelial basement membrane (for structure and stability)
  3. capillary basement membrane
  4. capillary endothelium
66
Q

describe the thickness and function of the respiratory membrane

A

very thin to allow rapid diffusion of gases

67
Q

approximately how many alveoli do the lungs contain?

A

approx 300 million

68
Q

what is respiratory distress syndrome?

A

a breathing disorder of premature newborns where alveoli do not remain open due to lack of surfactant

69
Q

what increases the chance of respiratory distress syndrome developing?

A

the more premature the newborn, the greater the chance that RDS will develop

70
Q

what are 3 symptoms of respiratory distress syndrome?

A
  1. labored/irregular breathing
  2. flaring of nostrils during inhalation
  3. possibly blue skin color
71
Q

what is done in mild cases of resipiratory distress syndrome?

A

supplemental O2

72
Q

what is done in severe cases of resipiratory distress syndrome? (2)

A
  1. O2 delivered by continuous positive airway pressure, through tubes in nose or mask on face
  2. surfactant administered directly into lungs
73
Q

what is a unique feature of pulmonary blood vessels?

A

constriction in response to localized hypoxia

74
Q

why do pulmonary blood vessels constrict in response to localized hypoxia?

A

to divert pulmonary blood flow from poorly ventilated areas of lungs to well ventilated regions

75
Q

what does diversion of pulmonary blood flow from poorly ventilated areas to well ventilated areas allow for? (2)

A
  1. more efficient gas exchange
  2. ventilation perfusion coupling
76
Q

what is ventilation perfusion coupling?

A

perfusion to each area of lungs matches the extent of ventilation to alevoli in that area

77
Q

what do bronchial arteries branch from and what do they do?

A

bronchial arteries branch from aorta and deliver oxygenated blood to lungs

78
Q

what do bronchial arteries mainly perfuse?

A

bronchial arteries mainly perfuse walls of bronchi and bronchioles

79
Q

what are the 3 steps to respiration?

A

1.pulmonary ventilation
2. external (pulmonary) respiration
3. internal (tissue) respiration

80
Q

what happens in pulmonary ventilation? (1st step to respiration)

A

breathing; inhalation and exhalation of air

81
Q

what happens in external (pulmonary) respiration? (2nd step to respiration)

A

exchange of gases between alveoli of lungs and blood in pulmonary capillaries

82
Q

what happens in internal (tissue) respiration? (3rd step to respiration)

A

exchange of gases between blood in systemic capillaries and tissue cells

83
Q

why does air flow between atmosphere and alveoli?

A

because of altering pressure differences

84
Q

what causes the altering pressure differences that causes air to floow between atmosphere and alveoli?

A

contraction and relaxation of respiratory muscles

85
Q

other than contraction and relaxation of muscles, what 3 things influence the rate of airflow and amount of effort needed for breathing?

A
  1. alveolar surface tension
  2. compliance of lungs
  3. airway resistance
86
Q

when does air move into the lungs?

A

when air pressure in lungs is less than air pressure in the atomosphere

87
Q

when does air move out of the lungs?

A

when air pressure inside lings is greater than air pressure in the atmosphere

88
Q

describe air pressure in the lungs and atmosphere just before inhalation

A

equal to each other, 760 mmHg

89
Q

what must happen in order for air to flow into lungs? how is this achieved?

A

pressure in alveoli must become lower than atmosphere; achieved by expanding lungs (flattening diaphragm)

90
Q

what does Boyle’s law state?

A

there is an inverse relationship between volume and pressure, so the pressure of gas in a closed container is inversely proportional to the volume of the container

91
Q

according to Boyle’s law, what happens if the size of a closed container is increased?

A

the pressure of the gas inside the container will decrease

92
Q

what do the differences in pressure caused by chnages in lung volume do to air during inhalation and exhalation?

A

force air into lungswith inhalation and force air out of lungs with exhalation

93
Q

what must happen in order for inhalation to occur and why?

A

lungs must expand to increase lung volume to decrease pressure in lungs below atmospheric pressure

94
Q

what is the first step in expanding the lungs?

A

contraction of the main muscles of inhalation

95
Q

what are the 2 main muscles of inhalation and which is most important?

A
  1. diaphragm: most important!
  2. external intercostals
96
Q

what is the diaphragm innervated by?

A

phrenic nerves

97
Q

what does contraction do to the diaphragm? what is the result of this?

A

contraction cuases diaphragm to flatten, lowering its dome shape to increase the vertical diameter of the thoracic cavity

98
Q

in quiet breathing, far does the diaphragm descend? what does this do to pressure and how much air is inhaled?

A

in quiet breathing, the diaphragm descends approx 1cm, causing a pressure difference of 1-3 mmHg and allowing for inhalation of approx 500 mL of air

99
Q

in strenuous breathing, far does the diaphragm descend? what does this do to pressure and how much air is inhaled?

A

in strenuous breathing, diaphragm descends up to 10cm, producing a pressure difference of 100mmHg and allowing for inhalation of 2-3L of air

100
Q

during quiet breathing, the diaphragm is responsible for what percent of air that enters the lungs?

A

approximately 75%

101
Q

what are horse hiccups also called? in what horses are they common?

A

also called the thumps, common in endurance horses

102
Q

why do endurances horses get the thumps?

A

they sweat a lot, so they lose a lot of electrolytes, which causes hyperexcitation of the phrenic nerve that sits on the right atrium; so when the heart contracts, the phrenic nerve reponds and the diaphragm bounces based on the heart beat

103
Q

how do you treat the thumps in horses?

A

give electrolytes to end hyperexcitation of the phrenic nerve

104
Q

describe what the ribs do during inhalation and exhalation by comparing them to the handles of a bucket

A

move up and out in inhalation
move down and in during exhalation

105
Q

what 3 conditions can prevent complete descent of the diaphragm?

A
  1. pregnancy
  2. excessive obesity
  3. confining abdominal clothing
106
Q

what happens when the external intercostals contract?

A

they elevate the ribs

107
Q

what is the result of the elevation of the ribs caused by contraction of the external intercostals?

A

increase in anteroposterior (front to back) and lateral diameter of chest cavity

108
Q

what percentage of air entering the lungs during quiet breathing are the external intercostals responsible for?

A

approx 25%

109
Q

what is intrapleural pressure?

A

the pressure between the 2 pleural layers in the pleural cavity (parietal and visceral)

110
Q

describe the relative level of intrapleural pressure during quiet inhalation

A

always subatmospheric during quiet inhalation

111
Q

what is intrapleural just before inhalation?

A

approx 756mmHg, 4 less than atmospheric pressure

112
Q

what happens to the overall size of the thoracic cavity as the diaphragm and external intercostals contract?

A

overall size of thoracic cavity increases

113
Q

what happens to the pleural cavity as the overall size of the thoracic cavity increases? what is the result?

A

the volume of the pleural cavity increases, causing intrapleural pressure to drop to approx 754 mmHg

114
Q

describe the parietal and visceral pleura during expansion of the thorax

A

normally adhere tightly because of subatmospheric pressure between them and because of surface tension created by moist adjoining surfaces

115
Q

what happens to the parietal pleura lining the thoracic cavity as the thoracic cavity expands and what is the result?

A

parietal pleural cavity is pulled outward in all directions and pulls visceral pleura and lungs with it

116
Q

what happens to alveolar pressure inside the lungs as the volume in the lungs increases? what does this establish and what is the result?

A

alveolar pressure inside lungs drops from 760 to 758 mmHg, establishing a pressure difference between the atmosphere and the alveoli, causing air to flow from the region of higher pressure (the atmosphere) to the region of lower pressure (the alveoli)

117
Q

how long will air continue to flow into the lungs?

A

as long as a pressure difference exists

118
Q

what is used during deep forceful inhalations? general and then give 3

A

accessory muscles such as
1. sternocleidomastoid
2. scalene
3. pectoralis minor

119
Q

what does the sternocleidomastoid muscle do during deep forceful inhalation?

A

elevates the sternum

120
Q

what does the scalene muscle do during deep forceful inhalation?

A

elevates the first two ribs

121
Q

what does the pectoralis minor muscle do during deep forceful inhalation?

A

elevates the 3rd and 4th ribs

122
Q

when does exhalation occur?

A

when pressure in lungs is greater than pressure in atmosphere

123
Q

describe exhalation during quiet breathing (2)

A
  1. a passive process
  2. no muscular contractions involved
124
Q

what causes exhalation?

A

elastic recoil of the chest wall and lungs, which both have a natural tendency to spring back after stretched

125
Q

whar are the 2 inwardly directed forces that contribute to elastic recoil?

A

1, recoil of elastic fibers that were stretched during inspiration
2. inward pull of surface tension due to film of alveolar fluid

126
Q

what is intrapulmonic pressure?

A

pressure inside the lungs themselves

Cardiovascular, Pulmonary, and Hepatic Physiology (12 decks)

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