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LC INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOBIOLOGY > Psychopharmacology II > Flashcards

Psychopharmacology II Flashcards

1
Q

what is alcohol and how is it ingested?

A

one of the most consumed drugs, which is ingested by drinking

categorised as a depressant drug

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2
Q

at lower doses, what does alcohol produce?

A

behavioural stimulation

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3
Q

at higher doses, what does alcohol produce?

A

depression

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4
Q

what does the dose-response curve for alcohol show?

A

behavioural stimulation increases alongside dose increase, which causes inhibitory effects to kick in

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5
Q

how does alcohol effect the brain?

A

it enhances inhibitory neurotransmitters by bonding to GABA-A receptors and acting as an allosteric modulator

this enhances the flow of chloride ions into the brain and enhances the effect of GABA

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6
Q

how else does alcohol effect the brain?

A

it inhibits excitatory nerve transmission in NMDA (glutamate) receptors

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7
Q

what indirect effects does alcohol have?

A

indirect effects of neurotransmission in serotonin, opioid, and dopamine systems in the brain

increases mesolimbic dopamine transmission from action at cannabinoid receptors

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8
Q

long-term effects of alcohol use

A

heavy alcohol use can lead to negative general health issues, such as liver cirrhosis, increased risk of cancer, and foetal alcohol syndrome

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9
Q

how can long-term alcohol use affect the brain?

A

development of Korsakoff’s syndrome and vitamin deficiencies in thiamine/B1

this can lead to memory problems such as dementia

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10
Q

what happens when the brain adapts to chronic alcohol use?

A

leads to withdrawal syndrome, caused by a rebound of excitability

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11
Q

what is cocaine?

A

a stimulant drug extracted from leaves of the coca plant

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12
Q

route of administration for cocaine

A

via nasal mucous membranes or inhalation

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13
Q

physiological effects of taking cocaine

A

increased temperature, blood pressure, and heart rate- leading to potential heart problems

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14
Q

effects of cocaine on the brain

A

cocaine blocks dopamine transporters, which reduces re-uptake of dopamine into the neurone. to prolongs it duration in the synapse

indirectly enhances the effects of dopamine, making cocaine an indirect dopamine agonist

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15
Q

chronic, physical, and psychological effects of cocaine

A

can cause problems with lung congestion if smoked or damage to the nasal membrane if snorted

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16
Q

what can stimulant effects of cocaine lead to?

A

general cardiovascular problems or drug induced psychosis, e.g., formication

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17
Q

amphetamines

A

these have similar psychological effects to cocaine, and can be swallowed, snorted, injected, or smoked

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18
Q

types of synthetic stimulants

A

d-amphetamine
methamphetamine

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19
Q

differences between synthetic stimulants

A

methamphetamine is more lipid-soluble than d-amphetamine, meaning it crosses the membrane and is absorbed into the brain more quickly

this may explain its higher usage

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20
Q

effects of amphetamines

A

has initial effects of euphoria, wellbeing, and alertness which is followed by a ‘crash period’ consisting of irritability, paranoia and tremors

long-term use can lead to psychosis

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21
Q

nicotine

A

administered in tobacco products and nicotine replacement products

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22
Q

what is nicotine?

A

a direct agonist and a stimulant drug- acts as an agonist at acetylcholine receptors

this increases the release of neurotransmitters such as dopamine

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23
Q

what does nicotine not block?

A

cholinergic receptors

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24
Q

stimulant effects of caffeine

A

when taken acutely, it can increase alertness and motor coordination

those with higher sensitivity can experience negative effects such as panic attacks or anxiety

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25
Q

what is caffeine?

A

a direct antagonist acting at adenosine receptors

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26
Q

what does caffeine have a natural link to?

A

dopamine- as adenosine receptors inhibit the activation of dopamine receptors

by reducing inhibition, dopamine signalling is increased- meaning caffeine becomes a stimulant

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27
Q

types of opiates

A

can be naturally occurring in plants (morphine and codeine) or synthesised in a lab (heroin, fentanyl, or oxycodone)

28
Q

how does heroin undergo metabolism?

A

heroin can cross the blood-brain barrier more easily than morphine

it is metabolised into morphine in the brain, meaning that morphine causes the biological effect

29
Q

types of opioid receptors

A

delta
epsilon
kappa
mu
sigma

30
Q

why has the mu receptor received most attention?

A

action at this receptor brings about pain relieving effects of opioid drugs and is responsible for being dependence inducing

31
Q

what are the psychoactive properties of heroin mediated by?

A

agonist action at mu receptors

32
Q

what do endogenous opioid receptors (beta endorphin) bind to?

A

mu opioid receptors

morphine and heroin bind to these same receptors in the brain

33
Q

cannabis

A

the cannabis sativa plant contains active chemicals, and many effects are caused by the main ingredient Delta 9-THC

34
Q

properties of THC

A

THC is metabolised and eliminated in urine

it is lipid-soluble so must be transformed into water-soluble molecules to be eliminated

35
Q

how does transformation of THC effect drug action?

A

the slow elimination and quick storage in fat is the reason for prolonged cannabis action

36
Q

cannabis receptors in the brain

A
  • CB1 and CB2 receptors
37
Q

THC and cannabis receptors

A

THC acts as a direct agonist at these receptors, which enhances cannabinoid neurotransmission

this also has effects on increasing dopamine release

38
Q

which different mediating factors can underlie individual differences contributing to drug effects?

A
  • kinetic differences
  • pharmacodynamic differences
  • idiosyncratic differences
39
Q

kinetic differences

A

a different amount of drug reaches the site of action for same doses

40
Q

pharmacodynamic differences

A

different psychological responses for the same drug concentration at the site of action

41
Q

idiosyncratic differences

A

people may experience an atypical drug reaction due to genetics or prior exposure to toxins

42
Q

body size and composition

A

the same dose produces a smaller response in a larger person, as it is diluted by a larger vascular system and distributed in greater blood volume

43
Q

how can body size and composition be mediated?

A

doses should be titrated, so a larger person receives the same dose effect

44
Q

age- effect of liver

A

metabolism can be affected by a change in liver mass and decrease in liver function, meaning it is unable to metabolise as many drugs

45
Q

age- effect of kidneys

A

kidneys are less able to excrete drugs into the urine

46
Q

age- other drugs

A

drug-drug interactions could alter the response

40% of older people do not take drugs as directed- issues with compliance

47
Q

sex

A

women have lower plasma volume and a higher proportion of body fat, which can affect whether the drug is retained in fat

hormonal effects can interact responses to a drug, and some drugs may be metabolised differently

48
Q

how is alcohol metabolised?

A

it is metabolised by the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase, which is critical for converting alcohol into the metabolite acetaldehyde

49
Q

what is acetaldehyde?

A

highly reactive and toxic- if this builds up it can have adverse effects, which may be the cause of hangovers

acetaldehyde is transformed into acetic acid to be removed from the body

50
Q

biotransformation of alcohol- sex

A

equivalent amounts of alcohol can have a greater effect on women than men, due to a smaller vascular capacity and lower levels of gastric alcohol dehydrogenase

this means less alcohol will enter their blood

51
Q

biotransformation of alcohol- presence of food in the stomach

A

drinking on a full stomach increases likelihood of alcohol being metabolised by gastric alcohol dehydrogenase

the presence of food affects the amount of absorption

52
Q

biotransformation of alcohol- genetics

A

racial and ethnic group can affect drug response due to underlying genetic differences, however this is not a perfect market

53
Q

biotransformation of alcohol- ethnicity

A

genetic ancestry may be more relevant than self-identified race. individual knowledge of the genetic profile is most accurate for drug predictions

54
Q

what can be found in individuals of asian heritage?

A

variants of the enzyme aldehyde dehydrogenase. these variants are linked to an increased response for alcohol, resulting in a reduced breakdown of acetaldehyde.

may be the cause of a reduced tendency of drinking in this group.

55
Q

african american smokers

A

have a slower rate of nicotine metabolism due to a genetic variation in the enzyme CYP2A6

this means less nicotine is needed to maintain the effects, and they may smoke less extensively

56
Q

biotransformation of alcohol- sociocultural factors

A

different racial and ethnic groups experience different socioeconomic and cultural contexts, which can influence whether people try drugs of continue to use them

this might relate to smokeless tobacco products in south asian households

57
Q

which ethnic groups suffer greater harm from drug use?

A

women of colour are at greater risk for hypertension, high blood pressure, and HIV/AIDS.

this can be related to difficulty in accessing affordable healthcare and mistrust in providers

58
Q

tolerance

A

needing to escalate the dose to experience the same effect

59
Q

sensitisation

A

taking less of the drug to experience the same effect

60
Q

different kinds of tolerance

A
  • metabolic tolerance
  • cellular tolerance
61
Q

metabolic tolerance

A

the drug is metabolised faster with repeated use

62
Q

cellular tolerance

A

target cells adjust their function to compensate for the action of drug on the cell

63
Q

what is sensitisation more common for?

A

stimulant drugs, as the desire for the drug is becoming sensitised

64
Q

placebo effect

A

a placebo is a drug that has no intrinsic pharmacological activity, but can produce behavioural and physiological effects that are indistinguishable from a real drug

65
Q

expectancies

A

whether someone is told specific effects that are likely to occur will affect the response

66
Q

how can forms of medication influence how people think about the effectiveness of a drug?

A

blue pills associated with a calming effect
red pills associated with a stimulant effect

smaller pills and larger doses believed to be less effective

67
Q

what can expectancies have implications on?

A

how healthcare must present drugs and medication to patients

LC INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOBIOLOGY (8 decks)

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