Learning and Memory

Question 1

what is lambda?

Answer 1

the maximum that can be learned

Question 2

what is v?

Answer 2

what we already know

Question 3

what is lambda - v?

Answer 3

the prediction error

Question 4

what does it mean when the prediction error is small?

Answer 4

there is a small amount to be learned

Question 5

where does the rescorla-wagner rule originate from?

Answer 5

pavlovlian conditioning, as it aims to predict an outcome

Question 6

what does the rescorla-wagner rule highlight?

Answer 6

the importance of surprise in learning and memory, as the amount learned is proportional to the amount of surprise at the outcome

Question 7

what is learning?

Answer 7

the acquisition of behavioural information

Question 8

what is memory?

Answer 8

the retention of information that guides future behaviour

Question 9

how does the rescorla-wagner equation change when a lot has been learned?

Answer 9

v becomes biggeer, so l-v becomes smaller.

this means that delta-v becomes smaller, which creates the shape of a learning curve

Question 10

what does the rescorla-wagner rule suggest?

Answer 10

there should be no learning when an outcome is already fully predicted, as lambda and v would be equal

Question 11

why is the rescorla-wagner rule used?

Answer 11

because the presence of stimulus x ‘blocks’ the learning of y, we need to learn whether y is predictive of the outcome, or if x just has predictive value

Question 12

what does blocking interrupt?

Answer 12

the conditioning process, and it allows for necessary adaptive behaviour in the future

Question 13

what studies did hollerman and schultz conduct in 1998?

Answer 13

they recorded the electrical activirty in the brains of monkeys as proof of prediction error signals

Question 14

what studies did hollerman and schultz conduct in 1998?

Answer 14

they recorded the electrical activity in the brains of monkeys as proof of prediction error signals

Question 15

in hollerman and schultz’s study, what did the monkeys learn?

Answer 15

they learnt that particular visual imaging led to particular events.

discrimination learning was used to present them with two simultaneous visual images, and they received a reward when the correct image was pressed

Question 16

in hollerman and schultz’s study, where was brain activity recorded?

Answer 16

found activity in the VTA- theorised this was where prediction error signals originated.

they also found the presence of neurones which express and release the neurotransmitter dopamine

Question 17

in hollerman and schultz’s study, what results did they find?

Answer 17

in monkeys, the area of the brain associated with reward has increased activity when something surprising happens

Question 18

in hollerman and schultz’s study, what happened to the braina activity of monkeys when the process was repeated?

Answer 18

the neurones in the VTA began to only respond when the reward was predicted, rather than when it was recieved.

this is proof of prediction error signals in the brain to predict and adapt to expected outcomes

Question 19

in hollerman and schultz’s study, what happened when a reward was predicted but no reward occured?

Answer 19

the dopamine neurone signals decreased in activity, showing proof of negative prediction signals.

this is because the monkey had learned too much, meaning v is bigger than lambda- prediction error becomes negative

Question 20

what was theorised about prediction error signals in humans?

Answer 20

that they would be more evident in an unpredictable situation as opposed to a predictable situation

Question 21

in berns’ 2001 study, what fMRI activity was found in the human brain?

Answer 21

higher activity was found in the unpredictable situation (being given juice or splashed with water at irregular intervals) compared to the predictable situation

Question 22

in berns’ 2001 study, where were high levels of brain activity found?

Answer 22

in the nucleus accumbens

Question 23

what is the nucleus accumbens?

Answer 23

a key part of the reward system due to its conection to the VTA

it recieves signals through the mesolimbic dopamine pathway

Question 24

can prediction error signals regulate learning?

Answer 24

learning can occur through prediction error signals due to the consequences of ‘over-expectation’

Question 25

how can ‘over-expectation’ regulate learning?

Answer 25

when a predicted situation does not occur, uncertainty is created which reduces expectations in order for new learning to take place

Question 26

what happens when two predictors of an outcome come together, and the expected outcome does not materialise?

Answer 26

this causes predictions to be toned down due to the high prediction error.

leads to revaluing the original stimulus, e.g., alien, predator, alien vs predator

Question 27

can prediction error signals update memories?

Answer 27

in 2009, takahashi et al found that over-expectation training caused a change in subsequent normal behaviour

Question 28

what did takahashi’s study involve?

Answer 28

a learning condition where rats were presented with sugar after hearing a sound (A1 and A2), along with being presented with sugar after seeing light

Question 29

what was the over-expectation training condition in takahashi’s study?

Answer 29

the rats were presented with sugar after receiving both the A1 sound and light

Question 30

in takahashi’s study, what happened to the rats between A1 and A2?

Question 31

in takahashi’s study, what happened to the rats between A1 and A2?

Answer 31

after being presented with no reward, the rats showed a change in memory and behaviour- as the predicted situation did not occur

Question 32

in takahashi’s study, what happened to the rats when their VTA prediction error was inhibited?

Answer 32

their behaviour did not change

this is proof that prediction error signals can update and regulate learning and memories for subsequent behaviour