psychopathy 101 Flashcards
The behavioural approach to explaining phobias:
what is the two process model
Mower (1960) argued that phobias are learned by classical conditioning and then maintained by opera conditioning, i.e. two processes are involved.
The behavioural approach to explaining phobias
describe the acquisition of phobias by classical conditioning
Classical conditioning involves association.
1. UCS triggers a fear response (fear is a UCR), e.g. being bitten creates anxiety.
2. NS is associated with the UCS, e.g. being bitten by a dog (the dog previously did not create anxiety).
3. NS becomes a CS producing fear (which is now the CR). The dog becomes a CS causing a CR of anxiety/ fear following the bite.
The behavioural approach to explaining phobias:
describe the case of little albert : two process model
Watson and Rayner (1920) showed how a fear of rats could be conditioned
1. Whenever Albert played with a white rat, a loud noise was made close to his ear. The noise (UCS) caused a fear response (UCR).
2. Rat (NS) did not create fear until the bang and the rat had been paired together several times.
3. Albert showed a fear response (CR) every time he came into contact with the rat (now a CS).
The behavioural approach to explaining phobias:
what did albert do because of his fear of rats
generalisation of fear to other stimuli
For example, Little Albert also showed a fear in response to other white furry objects including a fu coat and a Santa Claus beard.
The behavioural approach to explaining phobias:
how does operant conditioning maintain the fear ?
Operant conditioning takes place when our behaviour is reinforced or punished.
Negative reinforcement - an individual produces behaviour that avoids something unpleasant.
When a person with a phobia avoids a phobic stim they escape the anxiety that would have been experienced.
This reduction in fear negatively reinforces the avoidance behaviour and the phobia is maintained.
The behavioural approach to explaining phobias: name an example of negative reinforcement in phobias
If someone has a morbid fear of clowns (coulrophobial they will avoid circuses and other situations where they may encounter clowns.
The relief felt from avoiding clowns negatively reinforces the phobia and ensures it is maintained rather than confronted.
name 2 strengths to the behavioural approach to explaining phobias
One strength of the two-process model is its real-world application.
De Jongh et al (2006) Evidence linking phobias to bad dental experiences (inc counter argument)
name 1 limitation of the behavioural approach to explaining phobias
-inability to explain cognitive aspects of phobias
Definitions of abnormality: statistical infrequency
Defining abnormality
The most obvious way to define anything as ‘normal’ in terms of statistics. or’abnormal’ is in terms of the number of times it is
observed.Statistics is about analysing numbers.
Any relatively ‘usual’, or often seen, behaviour can be thought of as ‘normal’
Any behaviour that is different, or rare, is ‘abnormal, ie a statistical infrequency.
1Q is normally distributed (see left).
The average IQ is 100. Most people have an IQ between 85 and 115, only 2% have a score below 70.
Those individuals scoring below 70 are statistically unusual or ‘abnormal’ and are diagnosed with intellectual disability disorder.
behavioural approach to explaining and treating phobias:
describe systemic desensitisation using counterconditioning
The therapy aims to gradually reduce anxiety through counterconditioning:
* Phobia is learned so that phobic stimulus (conditioned stimulus, CS) produces fear (conditioned response, CR).
* CS is paired with relaxation and this becomes the new CR.
Reciprocal inhibition - not possible to be afraid and relaxed at the same time, so one emotion prevents the other.
behavioural approach to explaining and treating phobias: describe an anxiety hierarchy
Client and therapist design an anxiety hierarchy-fearful stimuli arranged in order from least to most frightening.
A person with arachnophobia might identify seeing a picture of a small spider as low on their anxiety hierarchy and holding a tarantula as the final item.
behavioural approach to explaining and treating phobias: describe relaxation practiced at each level of the hierarchy
Person with phobia is first taught relaxation techniques such as deep breathing and/or meditation.
Person then works through the anxiety hierarchy. At each level the person is exposed to the phobic stimulus in a relaxed state.
This takes place over several sessions starting at the bottom of the hierarchy. Treatment is successful when the person can stay relaxed in high-anxiety situations.
behavioural approach to explaining and treating phobias: what is flooding inc extinction
Flooding involves exposing a person with a phobia with the phobic object without a gradual build-up.
A person with arachnophobia receiving flooding treatment may have a large spider crawl over their hand until they can relax fully (the person not the spider).
Without the option of avoidance behaviour, the person quickly learns that the phobic object is harmless through the exhaustion of their fear response. This is known as extinction.
behavioural approach to explaining and treating phobias: what is the ethical issues with flooding
Flooding is not unethical but it is an unpleasant experience so it is important that people being treat give informed consent. They must be fully prepared and know what to expect.
behavioural approach to explaining and treating phobias: evaluate SD
+evidence of effectiveness (Gilroy et al)
+useful for people with learning disabilities
-expensive
The cognitive approach to explaining depression
negative triad: what is faulty information processing
Beck (1967) suggested that some people are more prone to depression because of faulty information processing. i.e. thinking in a flawed way.
When depressed people attend to the negative aspects of a situation and ignore positives, they also tend to blow small problems out of proportion and think in
‘black-and-white’ terms.
The cognitive approach to explaining:
negative triad: how do depressed people have a negative schema
A schema is a ‘package’ of ideas and information developed through experience. We use schema to interpret the world, so if a person has a negative self-schema they interpret all information about themselves in a negative way.
The cognitive approach to explaining depression: describe the 3 elements to the negative trial
There are three elements to the negative triad:
* Negative view of the world, e.g. ‘the world is a cold hard place’.
* Negative view of the future, e.g. ‘there isn’t much chance that the economy will get any better.
* Negative view of the self, e.g. thinking ‘I am a failure and this negatively impacts upon self-esteem.
The cognitive approach to explaining depression: what is the A in the ABC model
Activating events
Ellis suggested that depression arises from irrational thoughts.
According to Ellis depression occurs when we experience negative events, e.g. failing an important test or ending a relationship.
The cognitive approach to explaining depression: B in the ABC model
Beliefs
Negative events trigger irrational beliefs, for example:
* Ellis called the belief that we must always succeed musterbation.
. 1-can’t-stand-it-itis is the belief that it is a disaster when things do not go smoothly.
. Utopianism is the belief that the world must always
be fair and just.
what is the C in Ellis (1962) ABC model
Consequences
When an activating event triggers irrational beliefs there are emotional and behavioural consequences.
For example, if you believe you must always succeed and then you fail at something, the consequence is depression.
evaluate negative triad
+supporting research (Clark and Beck 1999)
+real-world application to screening for depression
-partial explanation
evaluate Ellis’s ABC model
+it’s application in treating depression
-Ellis’s model only explains reactive depression
-ethical issues
The cognitive approach to treating depression:what is the most common psychological treatment and describe it
cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT)
CBT is an example of the cognitive approach to treatment, though it also includes behavioural aspects.
* Cognitive - challenge negative, irrational thoughts.
* Behaviour - change behaviour so it is more effective.
Client and therapist work together.
The cognitive approach to treating depression:what is the aim of CBT from Beck
The aim is to identify negative thoughts about the self, the world and the future - the negative triad.
These thoughts must be challenged by the client taking an active role in their treatment.
The cognitive approach to treating depression:how is the client viewed as the therapist in CBT
Clients are encouraged to test the reality of their irrational beliefs.
They might be set homework, e.g. to record when they enjoyed an event. This is referred to as the ‘client as scientist’.
In future sessions if clients say that no one is nice to them, the therapist can produce this evidence to prove the client’s beliefs are incorrect.
The cognitive approach to treating depression:what is Ellis’s rational emotive behaviour therapy
REBT extends the ABC model to an ABCDE model:
* D for dispute (challenge) irrational beliefs.
* E for effect.
The cognitive approach to treating depression: how is irrational thoughts challenged with an REBT therapist
A client might talk about how unlucky they have been or how unfair life is. An REBT therapist would identify this as utopianism and challenge it as irrational.
* Empirical argument - disputing whether there is evidence to support the irrational belief.
* Logical argument - disputing whether the negative thought actually follows from the facts.
The cognitive approach to treating depression:what is behaviour activation
in Ellis REBT
As individuals become depressed, they tend to increasingly avoid difficult situations and become isolated, which maintains or worsens symptoms.
The goal of behavioural activation, therefore, is to work with depressed individuals to gradually decrease their avoidance and isolation, and increase their engagement in activities that have been shown to improve mood, e.g. exercising, going out to dinner, etc.
The cognitive approach to treating depression:name 2 strengths of CBT
-evidence of effectiveness
-client preference
The cognitive approach to treating depression:name 2 limitations of CBT
-suitability for diverse clients inc counter evidence
-high relapse rates
The biological approach to explaining OCD: what is ocd in genetic explanation
polygenic (not caused by one gene but several
The biological approach to explaining OCD: describe different types of OCD for other people in genetic explanation
one group may cause OCD in one person but a different group of genes may cause the disorder in another person (aetiologically heterogeneous)
The biological approach to explaining OCD: how does low serotonin affect mood in neural explanation
-neurotransmitters are responsible for relaying information from one neuron to another
-eg if a person has low levels of serotonin then normal transmission of mood revelant information does not take place and mood is affected
The biological approach to explaining OCD: how does decision making affect OCD in the frontal lobe
OCD or in hoarding disorder is associated with the impaired decision making associated with abnormal functioning of the lateral frontal lobes of the brain (responsible for logical thinking)
The biological approach to explaining OCD evaluate
+supporting evidence for neural explanation of OCD
-environmental risk factors are also involved
-serotonin-OCD link may not be unique to OCD
bio approach to treating OCD: what did drug therapy for mental disorders aim
to increase or decrease levels of neurotransmitters in the brain or to increase/ decrease their activity
-low levels of serotonin is associated with OCD therefore drugs work to increase the level of serotonin
bio approach to treating OCD: what does selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors does
prevent the reabsorption and breakdown of serotonin in the brain.
This increases its levels in the synapse and thus continues to stimulate the postsynaptic neuron (compensates whatever is wrong with serotonin)
bio approach to treating OCD: what is the typical dosage (SSRI)
SSRI is 20mg but may be increased if it is not benefitting the patient
takes 3-4 months to impact
can be increased to 60mg if this is appropriate
bio approach to treating OCD: what are drugs often used alongside
CBT to treat OCD
drugs reduce a patients emotional symptoms eg depressed or anxious. This means that patients can engage more effectively with CBT
bio approach to treating OCD: what is an alternative to SSRI
tricyclics are sometimes used
same effect on serotonin system as SSRIs but side effects can be more severe
bio approach to treating OCD: name another alternative SNRI
SNRI - a different class of antidepressants to treat OCD (serotonin noradrenaline reuptake inhibitor)
second line of defence for patients who don’t respond to SSRIs increase levels of serotonin as well as noradrenaline
evaluate bio approach to treating OCD
+cost effective and non-disruptive
-evidence for drug treatments is unreliable
-some cases of OCD follow trauma
The biological approach to explaining OCD
genetic explanations: describe candidate genes
-specific genes which create a vulnerability for OCD, called candidate genes.
* Serotonin genes, e.g. 5HT1-D beta, are implicated in the transmission of serotonin across synapses.
* Dopamine genes are also implicated in OCD and may regulate mood.
Both dopamine and serotonin are neurotransmitters.
The biological approach to explaining OCD
genetic explanations: describe how OCD is polygenic
OCD is not caused by one single gene but several genes are involved.
Taylor (2013) found evidence that up to 230 different genes may be involved in OCD.
genetic explanations: describe different types of OCD
(3)
One group of genes may cause OCD in one person but a different group of genes may cause the disorder in another person - known as aetiologically heterogeneous.
L-evidence that different types of OCD may bc of particular genetic variations eg hoarding disorder and religious obsession.
The biological approach to explaining OCD
neural explanations: how does low serotonin lower mood
Neurotransmitters are responsible for relaying information from one neuron to another.
For example if a person has low levels of serotonin then normal transmission of mood-relevant information does not take place and mood (and sometimes other mental processes) is affected.
The biological approach to explaining OCD
neural explanations: how does decision making systems in frontal lobes impaired
The frontal lobes are responsible for logical thinking and making decisions.
-OCD, and in particular hoarding disorder, seem to be associated with impaired decision-making
The biological approach to explaining OCD
neural explanations: what area is the parahippocampal gurus associated with
There is also evidence to suggest that an area called the left parahippocampal gyrus, associated with processing unpleasant emotions, functions abnormally in OCD.
The biological approach to explaining OCD neural explanations: evaluate
-supporting evidence
- no unique neural system
The biological approach to explaining OCD genetic explanations: evaluate
+evidence for the genetic explanations of OCD
- existence of environmental risk factors
Animal studies
describe phobia behavioural, emotional and cognitive
- panic, avoidance
-anxiety, fear
-irrational beliefs, selective attention to the phobic stimulus
describe depression behavioural, emotional and cognitive
-activity levels, aggression
-lowered mood and anger
-poor concentration, absolutist thinking
describe OCD behavioural, emotional and cognitive
-avoidance, compulsion are repetitive
-anxiety and distress
-obsessive thought, cognitive coping strategies
