memory evaluation Flashcards
The working memory model:
working memory model - how does shallice and Warrington’s study support from patient KF who suffered brain damage (3)
tw: visual and acoustic
- poor STM ability for verbal information but could process visual information normally i.e. he had difficulty with sounds but could recall letters and digits.
- This suggests that just his phonological loop had been damaged leaving other areas of memory intact and shows that there is evidence to support the existence of separate STM stores for visual and acoustic information.
The working memory model: : why does evidence from case studies of patients with brain damage need to b treated with caution
tw: comparison
- Evidence from brain damaged patients may not be reliable because it concerns unique cases with patients who have had traumatic experiences.
- Baseline measurements are not taken of their behaviour before the brain damage which means that there is no control to compare the performance after the injury.
- It may be that the performance of these brain damaged individuals is not the same as that of someone without brain damage, therefore we can’t generalise these case studies incase they don’t have ;normal’ memory regardless of the brain damage.
The working memory model:
- lack of clarity over central executive
1.Cognitive psychologists suggest that there is a lack of clarity over the central executive.
2.this part of the model is not really explained.
more clearly specified than just being an attentional process.
3. WMM is incomplete and therefore inaccurate in explaining memory so further developments may need to be made
The working memory model:
Studies of dual-task performance support the separate existence of the visuo-spatial sketchpad.
TW: baddeley
- Studies of dual-task performance support the separate existence of the visuo-spatial sketchpad.
- Baddeley et al showed that participants had more difficulty doing two visual tasks (tracking a light and describing the letter F) than doing both a visual and verbal task at the same time. The increased difficulty for the two visual tasks is because they were competing for the same slave system (the visuo-spatial sketchpad), whereas when doing a verbal and visual task, there was no competition.
- This means there must be a separate slave system, the visuo-spatial sketchpad, that processes visual input, further supporting the existence of separate STM stores for visual and acoustic information.
The multi-store model of memory:
how is it a pioneering model of memory that inspired further research
It was influential in creating other models of memory, such as the Working Memory Model, to deal with the short comings of the original model.
This shows how important Atkinson’s and Shiffrin’s contribution to the field of memory was.
This has led to the exploration of trying to treat memory disorders such as dementia as we know how LTM is encoded.
The multi-store model of memory:
- how does stm duration have low ecological validity
participants were asked to remember little resemblance to items learned in real life.
For example, Peterson and Peterson (1959) used nonsense trigrams such as ‘XQF’ to investigate STM duration
This means that the findings regarding memory may not be accurate when applied to “real-life”
The multi-store model of memory:- how does it make sense that memories in ltm are coded semantically
-For example, you might recall the general message put across in a political speech, rather than all of the words as they were heard.
-has face validity.
-other Psychologists can use the MSM’s theory that LTM is encoded semantically and see whether new measures can be used to explore it further.
Factors affecting the accuracy of eyewitness testimony: misleading information, including leading questions and post-event discussion; anxiety.how does loftus and palmer lack mundane realism
-watching a video of a car crash.
- guessed that they were going to be asked questions about the video. –In everyday life you do not know that you are going to be a witness so you may not be as aware of what is going on.
- emotion that might be present during a car crash will not be there when watching a video.
-This reduces the validity of this supporting evidence
Factors affecting the accuracy of eyewitness testimony: Misleading information -
gabbert et al lacked mundane realism
-The task involved watching a video of a crime where money was stolen from a wallet.
-guessed that they were going to be asked questions about the video.
-everyday life you do not know that you are going to be a witness so you may not be as aware of what is going on.
- emotion present during a real crime such as a robbery will not be there when watching a video.
- This reduces the validity of this supporting evidence.
Factors affecting the accuracy of eyewitness testimony:
- research into misleading information may not be a true reflection of real world ewt
Participants in an EWT study usually know they are in a study. They know that, no matter how serious or horrific the incident, the answers they give will not have any significant effects.
In the real world, eyewitness testimony could have serious and far-reaching consequences so misleading information may have less of an impact on the accuracy of EWT.
Therefore, laboratory studies into misleading information may underestimate the accuracy of EWT as a result of the lack of consequence, reducing their external validity.
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Factors affecting the accuracy of eyewitness testimony: anxiety.
One criticism of the weapon focus effect is that the effect may not be caused by anxiety.
tw: surpise
One criticism of the weapon focus effect is that the effect may not be caused by anxiety.
Pickel (1998) arranged for participants to watch a thief enter a hairdressing salon carrying scissors (high threat, low surprise), a handgun (high threat, high surprise), a wallet (low threat, low surprise), or a raw chicken (low threat, high surprise). Identification was least accurate in the high surprise conditions rather than the high threat conditions.
This supports the view that the weapon focus effect may be the result of surprise rather than anxiety. This means that the knowledge gained from studies about the effects of anxiety on EWT are limited and we cannot accurately say how anxiety affects EWT.
Explanations for forgetting: retrieval failure due to absence of cues - range of experiments
tw: research support
Retrieval failure theory - Evaluation
A range of laboratory, field and natural experiments support the idea of retrieval failure.
For example, Godden and Baddeley (1975) demonstrated the importance of context-dependent learning and Carter and Cassaday (1998) demonstrated the importance of state dependent forgetting.
Research support increases the likelihood that this is a valid explanation for forgetting.
Therefore, if we know what causes forgetting, we can help create techniques that improve memory.
Explanations for forgetting: retrieval failure due to absence of cues
- real-life application Baddeley’s research supports
tw: context dependent forgetting
There are real life applications from research into retrieval failure.
Baddeley’s research into context dependent forgetting helps to explain a common occurrence we all experience in our everyday life of forgetting when the environment changes.
These results could therefore be used to help those who have more problems with forgetting.
When we are having trouble remembering something, it is probably worth making the effort to remember where we were when we learnt it - this is one of the basic principles of the cognitive interview.
Explanations for forgetting: proactive and retroactive interference
- support for retroactive interference.
McGeoch and McDonald
tw: list learning interference
There is support for retroactive interference.
McGeoch and McDonald had 6 groups of participants who each had to learn a list of 10 words. Each group was then given a second, but different, word list to learn. When the participants recalled the original list of words, their performance depended on the nature of the second list, with similar material in the second list leading to the worst recall.
This shows that interference is strongest when memories are similar.
This suggests that interference is a valid explanation for forgetting and can pave the way for techniques that can aid remembering by reducing interference.
Explanations for forgetting: retrieval failure due to absence of cues
research support for interference theory from everyday situations.
Baddeley and Hitch
tw: rugby players
There is research support for interference theory from everyday situations.
Baddeley and Hitch asked rugby players to try to remember the names of the teams that they had played in a season, week by week. Most players miss out a game at some point, so the ‘last team was different for each player. The results showed that accurate recall did not depend on how long ago the matches took place, but the number of matches that had been played.
This shows that interference explanations can apply to at least some everyday situations.
This increases the validity of the explanation of forgetting as we may forget the same in day-to-day
Types of long-term memory:
- evidence from brain scans to show that the different types of memory are stored in different parts of the brain
Types of LTM - Evaluation
There is evidence from brain scans to show that the different types of memory are stored in different parts of the brain.
Tulving found that episodic and semantic memory were both recalled from the prefrontal cortex (PFC) - however, the left PFC was involved in semantic memories and the right PFC for episodic memories.
This supports the view that there is a physical reality to the different types of LTM.
Types of long-term memory:
- identifying different types of memory allows treatments to be developed. (4)
tw: episodic memories
Identifying different types of memory allows treatments to be developed.
Belleville showed that episodic memories could be improved in individuals who had mild cognitive impairment; the trained participants performed better on a test of episodic memory after training than a control group.
This shows that there are real life applications to research into the types of LTM.
The impact of this is that, if we are able to treat the specific types of LTM, then the validity of the theory is solidified, and we can improve the lives of patients who have memoy impairments.
Types of long-term memory:
Clinical evidence to support the view of different types of ltm (3)
tw: HM
There is clinical evidence to support the view that there are different types of LTM.
HM could learn new procedural memories but not episodic or semantic memories. He got better at tasks for example drawing by looking at a reflection in the mirror, but he was unable to recall doing it previously.
This evidence demonstrates that one store can be damaged but other stores are unaffected.
However, there is a serious lack of control with brain damaged patients as we cannot see what they were like before the injury. It could be that their memory structures do not represent those of “normal people” therefore, we can’t determine whether his differences were there before the injury.
Explanations for forgetting: proactive and retroactive interference and retrieval failure due to absence of cues.
There is a much greater chance that interference will be demonstrated in lab experiments, than in real life, due to the artificial nature of the stimuli.
artifical nature of interference studies
There is a much greater chance that interference will be demonstrated in lab experiments, than in real life, due to the artificial nature of the stimuli.
Learning lists of words is a common task in memory studies but it is not the same as trying to remember in everyday life such as faces, names, birthdays, lists of ingredients.
This is a limitation because the supporting evidence for interference theory cannot be generalised to everyday situations.
This reduces the validity of the explanation as we don’t know if interference works the same way in day-to-day life.
Explanations for forgetting: proactive and retroactive interference and retrieval failure due to absence of cues
Interference effects may be overcome by using cues
Tulving and Psotka categories
Interference effects may be overcome by using cues.
Tulving and Psotka gave participants 5 lists of 24 words, each list organised into six categories. The categories were not explicit, but there were 4 animal words next to each other for example. Recall for the first list was about 70% but fell after each additional list to learn, due to interference.
However, when the participants were told the names of the categories, recall rose again to about 70%.
This shows that interference of memories and thus forgetting can be reduced, limiting the explanatory power
Factors affecting the accuracy of eyewitness testimony: misleading information
Gabbert’s research has increased population validity.
Gabbert’s research has increased population validity.
The study used two different populations - students and older adults. The results between the two groups were similar. This suggests that people of all ages are equally impacted by post event discussion. The results are therefore able to be applied to more people and if it is seen as valid, we can try and stop the effects of post-event discussions from happening
Factors affecting the accuracy of eyewitness testimony: misleading information
Gabbert’s study had a great deal of control.
tw: greater internal validity.
Gabbert’s study had a great deal of control.
It was a lab experiment and therefore because of the control of extraneous variables, we know that the only thing impacting on the DV was the IV
This means that post-event discussion can change people’s memories of the event.
Therefore, the results have greater internal validity.
Factors affecting the accuracy of eyewitness testimony: anxiety.
real-world applications of this research.
tw: credibility of a witness
There are real-world applications of this research. Understanding the effect of anxiety on the accuracy of EWT could help to determine the credibility of a witness. We now know that there is an optimal level of anxiety which will produce maximum accuracy. The findings of research in this area are useful for those responsible for questioning witnesses.
Factors affecting the accuracy of eyewitness testimony: anxiety.
The inverted-U explanation only focuses on the physiological aspects of anxiety.
The inverted-U explanation only focuses on the physiological aspects of anxiety.
It says that it is the physical changes to the body and brain during stressful incidents that affect the accuracy of EWT. Anxiety is more complex than this and has many components including a cognitive element. The theory ignores these. It is possible that anxiety might have a different effect on EWT than the one predicted by the theory therefore reducing the theories validity and explaining that more evidence needs to be considered into factors affecting EWT.
Factors affecting the accuracy of eyewitness testimony: misleading information
-Loftus and Palmer’s study lacked population validity
Loftus and Palmer’s study lacked population validity. All of the participants were university students. Students may not be experienced drivers which may impact on their susceptibility to leading questions. The results may not be generalisable to other groups i.e., older and more experienced drivers.
This is because these individuals may be less susceptible to leading questions because they might be a better judge of speed. Therefore, we cannot generalise these findings to everyone has different driving abilities may affect perception differently.
Factors affecting the accuracy of eyewitness testimony: misleading information, including leading questions and post-event discussion; anxiety.
-Loftus and Palmer’s study had a great deal of control.
Loftus and Palmer’s study had a great deal of control.
It was a lab experiment and therefore because of the control of extraneous variables, we know that the only thing impacting on the DV was the IV.
This means that the verb in a question impacts on the rating of speed and the memory of glass. Therefore, the results have greater internal validity.
Factors affecting the accuracy of eyewitness testimony: misleading information
Laboratory experiments may have low external validity
tw: Zaragosa and McCloskey (1989) demand characteristics
Laboratory experiments may have low external validity.
Zaragosa and McCloskey (1989) argue that many answers participants give in studies of EWT are the result of demand characteristics. They think they have guessed the aim of the study.
This may mean that they are more susceptible to leading questions in a study.
However, an eyewitness in court may anticipate being subject to leading arguments as legal teams try to “paint” guilt or innocence so they may be more able to avoid being misled.
Improving the accuracy of eyewitness testimony, including the use of the cognitive interview.
time-consuming
Time Consuming
* The cognitive interview is time consuming.
* For example, more time is needed to establish a rapport with the witness and allow them to relax.
* This interview technique therefore takes up more resources than the standard police interview.
* The impact of this is that the police may be more reluctant to use the cognitive interview.
Improving the accuracy of eyewitness testimony, including the use of the cognitive interview.
elements of the cognitive interview
- According to Miler and Bull, each individual element of the cognitive interview was equally valuable
- Used individually, each technique produced more information than the standard police interview.
- However, Milne and Bull found that using a combination of report everything and context reinstatement produced better recall than any of the other conditions.
- This suggests that some elements of the cognitive interview are more useful than others and that it is pointless to use all four elements of the cognitive interview procedure if only using two produces the best recall.
cognitive interview:
older interviewees
• The cognitive interview is particularly helpful if interviewees are older.
• Mello and Fisher (1996) found that the cognitive interview produced significantly more information for older participants.
This may be because older adults are overly cautious about reporting information if they feel they are wasting time, but the cognitive interview places an importance on reporting everything.
• This suggests that the cognitive interview is more effective for older people, in comparison to younger people.
