memory Flashcards
Outline procedure and findings Coding from Baddeley
Acoustically similar words (e.g. cat, cab, can) or dissimilar (e.g. pit, fem cow).
Semantically similar (e.g. great, large, big) or dissimilar (e.g. good, hug. hot).
Immediate recall worse with acoustically similar words, STM is acoust Recall after 20 minutes worse with semantically similar words, LTM is semantic.
Outline procedure and findings stm capacity Jacobs
-testing digital span
Researcher reads four digits and increases until the participant cannot recall the order correctly.
Final number = digit span.
On average, participants could repeat back 9.3 numbers and 7.3 letters in the correct order immediately after they were presented.
Outline procedure and findings Miller for capacity
Capacity - Miller (1956) Magic number 7 ‡ 2
Miller observed everyday practice, noted that things come in sevens-notes of musical scale, days of the week, deadly sins etc
Outline procedure and findings duration for STM
Peterson and Peterson (1959) Consonant syllables
PROCEDURE
24 students were given a consonant syllable (e.g. YCG) to recall and a 3-digit number to count backwards from
The retention interval was varied: 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 or 18 seconds.
After 3 seconds - average recall was about 80%. After 18 seconds it was about 3%. STM duration without rehearsal is up to 18 seconds.
Outline procedure and findings duration LTM
Bahrick et al.
Duration LTM - Bahrick et al. (1975) Yearbook photos
PROCEDU
Participants were 392 Americans aged between 17 and 74.
1. Recognition test - 50 photos from high school yearbooks.
2. Free recall test - Participants listed names of their graduating class.
FINDINGS
Recognition test - 90% accurate after 15 years, 70% after 48 years.
Free recall test - 60% recall after 15 years, 30% after 48 years.
evaluate baddeley’s research
(+) identified two memory stores
(-) artificial stimuli
evaluate Jacob’s and Miller’s study
-testing digital spam
J (+)replicated
M (-) overestimated STM capacity
evaluate Peterson and Petersons and Bahrick
PP (-)meaningless stimuli
B (+)high external validity
MMM: describe sensory register
All stimuli from the environment (e.g. the sound of someone talking) pass into the SR. This part of memory is not one store but five, one for each sense.
* Coding - modality-specific, depends on the sense (visual in iconic, acoustic in echoic, etc.).
* Duration - very brief, less than half a second (see research on facing page).
* Capacity - very high, e.g. over one hundred million cells in one eye, each storing data.
MMM:how does sr transferes to stm
Information passes further into memory only if attention is paid to it (attention is the key process).
MMM: describe STM
A limited capacity store of temporary duration.
* Coding - acoustic (based on sound).
* Duration - about 18 seconds unless the information is rehearsed.
* Capacity - between 5 and 9 (7 + 2) items before some forgetting occurs (Cowan argues for around 5):
how is stm transferred to ltm
Maintenance rehearsal occurs when we repeat (rehearse) material to ourselves. We can keep information in STM as long as we rehearse it.
If we rehearse it long enough, it passes into LTM.
MMM:describe ltm
A permanent memory store.
* Coding - mostly semantic (i.e. in terms of meaning).
* Duration - potentially up to a lifetime.
* Capacity - potentially unlimited.
how is stm retrieved from ltm
When we want to recall information stored in LTM it has to be transferred back to STM by a process called retrieval.
MSM:evaluate
(+) pioneering model of memory that inspired further research
(-)low ecological validity as the stimuli participants were asked to remember as stimuli ppts were asked to remember little resemblance to items learned in real life
(+) it makes sense that memories in the ltm are encoded semantically
Types of LTM: episodic memory
-They are time-stamped - you remember when they happened and how they relate in time.
-conscious recall
-daily personal experiences
Types of LTM: describe semantic memory
Semantic memories include our knowledge of facts, concepts and meaning. For example, knowing that London is the capital of England is a semantic memory. Semantic memories are associated with a part of the brain known as the temporal lobe.
not time stamped
Types of LTM: procedural memory
Procedural memory describes our implicit knowledge of tasks that usually do not require conscious recall to perform them. One example would be riding a bike –you might struggle to consciously recall how to manage the task, but we can [unconsciously] perform it with relative ease.
Types of LTM: evaluate
- case study evidence of different types of ltm inc count
-conflicting findings about types of ltm and brain areas
(+) helping people with memory problems
define wmm
Baddeley and Hitch (1974) developed the Working Memory Model (WMM), which focuses specifically on the workings of short-term memory (STM).
Atkinson and Shiffrin’s Multi-Store Model of memory (MSM) was criticized for over-simplifying STM (as well as LTM) as a single storage system, so the WMM alternative proposed that STM is composed of three, limited capacity stores
WMM: describe central executive with coding and capacity
- Supervisory role - monitors incoming data, directs allocates subsystems.
- attention and allocates subsystems to tasks.
- capacity- one strand of info at a time
coding- all sensory forms
WMM: describe PL with coding and capacity
PL deals with auditory information and preserves the order in which the information arrives. It is subdivided into:
* Phonological store: stores the words you hear.
* Articulatory process: allows maintenance rehearsal (repeating sounds to keep them in WM while they are needed).
coding- auditory
capacity- amount of info that can be spoken out loud in two seconds
WMM: describe Visuo-spatial sketchpad with coding and capacity
Stores visual and/or spatial information when required, (e.g. recalling how many windows your house has).
Logie (1995) subdivided the VSS into:
* Visual cache: stores visual data.
* Inner scribe: records arrangement of objects in visual field.
coding- visual and spatial
capacity- 3 or 4 objects
WMM: describe episodic buffer with coding and capacity
Added in 2000. It is a temporary store for information.
Integrates visual, spatial, and verbal information from other stores.
Maintains sense of time sequencing - recording events (episodes) that are happening.
Links to LTM.
coding-all sensory forms
capacity- 4 chunks of information
WMM: describe evaluation
+ support clinical evidence count
-+ dual task performance studies support VSS
-lack of clarity over the ce
Explanations for forgetting: Interference
describe interference theory
Forgetting occurs in LTM because we can’t get access to memories even though they are available.
Explanations for forgetting: Interference
define Proactive
Proactive interference occurs when old information stored in long-term memory interferes with the learning of new information.
-new information is similar to the old information
-. An everyday example of proactive interference is when you try to remember a new mobile phone number and your memory for your old number disrupts your attempts to remember this new information.
Explanations for forgetting: Interference
Retroactive
Retroactive interference occurs when the learning of new information interferes with the recall of old information from long-term memory. For example, once you have learned a new mobile number, it is often very difficult to recall your old number.
Explanations for forgetting: Interference
why is interference worse in PI and RI
This may be because:
* In PI previously stored information makes nee information more difficult to store.
* In RI new information overwrites previous!
which are similar.
Explanations for forgetting: Interference
outline the procedure effects of similarity
McGeoch Mcdonalds
Then they were given a new list to learn. The new material varied n degree to which it was similar to the old:
* Group 1: synonyms - words had same meanings as the originals.
* Group 2: antonyms - words had opposite meanings to the originas
* Group 3: unrelated - words unrelated to the original ones.
* Group 4: consonant syllables.
* Group 5: three-digit numbers.
* Group 6: no new list - participants just rested (control condition
Explanations for forgetting: Interference
outline the findings effects of similarity
Mcoech and Mcdonald’s
Performance depended on the nature of the second list. The most similar material (synonyms) produced the worst recall.
This shows that interference is strongest when the memories are similar
Explanations for forgetting: Interference
evaluate
+ support for interference in real world situations count
-interference effects may be overcome using cues
-support from drug studies
Explanations for forgetting: Interference
what can cause retrieval failure
Lack of cues can cause retrieval
When information is initially placed in memory, associated cues are stored at the same time.
failure.
If the cues are not available at the time of retrieval, you might not access memories that are actually there.
Explanations for forgetting: RI
describe encoding specificity principle
Cues help retrieval if the same ones are present both
(2) at encoding (when we learn the material) and (2) at retrieval (when we are recalling it).
If the cues available at encoding and retrieval are different (or if cues are entirely absent) there will be some forgetting
Explanations for forgetting: RI describe meaningful links
Meaningful links - the cue ‘STM’ leads you to recall lots of material about short-term memory.
Not meaningful links:
* Context-dependent forgetting - recall depends on external cue (e.g. weather or a place).
* State-dependent forgetting - recall depends on internal cue (e.g. feeling upset, being drunk).
Explanations for forgetting: RI outline the procedure and findings from godden and baddeley
underwater
Godden and Baddeley (3975) Context-dependent forgetting
Deep-sea divers learned word lists and were later asked to recall them:
PROCEDURE
* Condition 1: Learn on land - recall on land.
* Condition 2: Learn on land - recall underwater.
* Condition 3: Learn underwater - recall on land.
* Condition 4: Learn underwater - recall underwater.
Accurate recall was 40% lower in conditions 2 and 3 (mismatched contexts) than in conditions 1 and 4 (matched contexts).
-rf was due to absence of encoded context cues at time of recall
Explanations for forgetting: RI Carter and Cassaday state dependent procedure and findings
tw: drug
Carter and Cassaday (1998) State-dependent forgetting
Participants learned lists of words/prose and later recalled them.
PROCEDURE
. Condition 1: Learn when on drug - recall on drug.
. Condition 2: Learn when on drug - recall not on drug.
* Condition 3: Learn when not on drug - recall on drug.
* Condition 4: Learn when not on drug - recall not on drug.
FINDINGS
Recall was significantly worse in conditions 2 and 3 (mismatched cues)compared with conditions 1 and 3 (matched cues).
When the cues at encoding are absent at retrieval (e.g. you are drowsy when recalling material but had been alert when you learned it) then there is more forgetting.
Explanations for forgetting: RI
evaluate
+ real world application
+range of supporting evidence in count
-context effects vary in recall and recognition
Eyewitness testimony: Misleading information
describe procedure loftus and palmer
45 participants (students) watched film clips of car accidents and then answered questions about speed. Critical question: About how fast we-the cars going when they hit each other?’
-Five groups of participants, each given a different verb in the critical question: hit, contacted, bumped, collided or smashed.
Eyewitness testimony: Misleading information
describe the loftus and palmerfindings
The verb ‘contacted’ produced a mean estimated speed of 31.8 mph. the verb ‘smashed’, the mean was 40.5 mph.
The leading question (verb) biased eyewitness recall of an event. The verb ‘smashed’ suggested a faster speed of the car than ‘contacted.
EWT: Misleading information
describe name one reason why leading questions affect EWT
Response-bias
Wording of a question has no enduring effect on an
explanation.
eyewitness’s memory of an event, but influences the kind of answer given.
name one other reason why leading questions affect EWT
Substitution
Wording of a question does affect eyewitness memory, it interferes with the original memory, distorting its accuracy.
Eyewitness testimony: Misleading information
describe the procedure for post-event discussion gabbert et al
Gabbert et al. (2003) Post-event discussion
Paired participants watched a video of the same crime, but filmed so each participant could see elements in the event that the other could not. Both participants discussed what they had seen on the video before individually completing a test of recall.
Eyewitness testimony: Misleading information
post event discussion
describe gabbert et al findings
71% of participants wrongly recalled aspects of the event they did not see in the video but had heard in the discussion.
Control group - there was no discussion and no subsequent errors.
-evidence of memory conformity
Why does post-event discussion affect EWT
Why does post-event information affect EWT?
Memory contamination - When co-witnesses discuss a crime, they mix (mis)information from other witnesses with their own memories.
Memory conformity - Witnesses go along with each other to win social approval of because they believe the other witnesses are right.
Eyewitness testimony: Misleading information (PED MQ)
evaluate
+real-world application in the criminal justice system inc count
- substitution explanation is evidence challenging it
-evidence does not support memory conformity
EWT: anxiety
procedure Johnson and Scott
Participants sat in a waiting room believing they were going to take part in a lab study.
Low-anxiety condition - participants heard a casual conversation and then saw a man walk through the waiting room carrying a pen with grease on his hands.
High-anxiety condition - a heated argument was accompanied by the sound of breaking glass. A man then walked through the room holding a knife covered in blood (creates anxiety and ‘weapon focus’)
Participants were later asked to pick the man from a set of 50 photographs.
EWT: anxiety Johnson and Scott findings
49% of participants in the low-anxiety condition and 33% of high. anxiety participants were able to identify the man.
The tunnel theory of memory argues that people have enhanced memory for central events. Weapon focus as a result of anxiety can have this effect.
EWT: anxiety
yuille and cutshall: anxiety has a positive effect procedure
In an actual crime a gun-shop owner shot a thief dead.
- 21 witnesses, 13 agreed to participate in the study.
-interviewed 4-5 months after the incident.
-The information recalled was compared to the police interviews at the time of the shooting.
-Witness then rated how stressed they felt on the time of the incident
findings and conclusion **
Witnesses were very accurate in what they recalled and there was
little change after 5 months. Some details were less accurate, e.g. age , weight/height
Participants who reported the highest levels of stress were most accurate (about 88% compared to 75% for the less-stressed group).
Anxiety does not appear to reduce the accuracy of EWT for a real-world event and may even enhance it.
explain contradictory findings. for EWT in anxiety
Inverted-U theory.
Yerkes and Dodson (1908) argue that the relationship be performance and arousal/stress is an inverted U, as n diagram on the left.
Affects memory- Deffenbacher (1983) reviewed 21 studies of EWT with contradictory findings on the effects of anxiety on recall.
He suggested the Yerkes-Dodson effect could explain this - both low and high levels of anxiety produce poor recall whereas optimum levels can lead to very good recall.
EWT: anxiety evaluate
-anxiety may not be relevant to weapon focus
+ inverted- u explanation only focuses on the physiological aspects of anxiety
+supporting evidence for positive effects in count.
EWT: cognitive interview what is ci based on
Fisher and Geiselman (1992) claimed that EWT could be improved if the police use techniques based on psychological insights into how memory works.
They called it the cognitive interview to indicate its foundation in cognitive psychology.
Rapport (understanding) is established with interviewee using four main techniques.
EWT: cognitive interview step 1 report everything
Witnesses are encouraged to include every detail of an event, even if it seems irrelevant or the witness is not confident about it.
Seemingly trivial details could be important and may trigger other memories.
EWT: cognitive interview 2 reinstate the context
The witness returns to the original crime scene ‘in their mind’ and imagines the environment (e.g. the weather, what they could see) and their emotions (e.g. what they felt).
This is based on the concept of context-dependent forgetting (see page 40). Cues from the context may trigger recall.
EWT: cognitive interview reverse the order 3
Events are recalled in a different order (e.g. from the end back to the beginning, or from the middle to the beginning).
This prevents people basing their descriptions on their expectations of how the event must have happened rather than the actual events.
It also prevents dishonesty (harder to produce an untruthful account if it has to be reversed).
EWT: cognitive interview change perspective 4
Witnesses recall the incident from other people’s perspectives. How would it have appeared to another witness or to the perpetrator?
This prevents the influence of expectations and schema on recall. Schema are packages of information developed through experience. They generate a framework for interpreting incoming information.
EWT: cognitive interview describe enhanced cognitive interview
- additional elements of the CI.
- focus on the social dynamics of the interaction (e.g. knowing when to establish and relinquish eye contact).
- reducing the eyewitness’s anxiety, minimising distractions, getting the witness to speak slowly and asking open-ended questions.
EWT: cognitive interview evaluate
+research support for the effectiveness of the CI inc count.
-some elements of the CI are more useful than others
-time-consuming
