Psychopathology Flashcards - Evaluating eyewitness testimony of children.
1
Q
Factors Influencing Children’s Testimony
A
Cognitive: Developmental stage, memory processes, suggestibility
Social: Relationships with interviewers, social pressure
Individual: Personality, experiences, trauma
2
Q
What is the imoprtance of Developmentally Appropriate Protocols
A
The Importance of Tailored interview techniques can: “Improve accuracy of child’s testimony and
Reduce errors and false accusations”
3
Q
How do children perform in Photo Lineups in Forensic Interviews
A
Children 5+ years old generally good at identifying culprits in “target-present” lineups.
Even older children tend to guess in “target-absent” lineups.
4
Q
What is the Emotional Impact of Testifying
A
Potential Long-Term Effects: “Emotional distress
Attitudinal changes
Psychological trauma”
5
Q
What are the Legal Protections for Children
A
Need for Safeguards- “Vulnerable children in criminal cases require additional protections.
Aim to mitigate long-term impacts of testifying.”
6
Q
Children’s Testimony
A
Increasing number of children providing legal statements.
Importance of assessing credibility.
7
Q
Age and Accuracy in Children’s testimony
A
Older children tend to provide more accurate eyewitness reports.
Preschoolers’ Memory
Can recall accurate details of significant events.
Respond well to open-ended questions.
May provide brief and incomplete reports.
8
Q
Suggestibility in Preschoolers Potential Issues:
A
Susceptibility to leading questions.
Tendency to guess rather than say “I don’t know.”
Temporal and Quantitative Concepts
Challenges for Younger Children - Difficulty with standardized units of measurement.
9
Q
Effective Questioning Techniques
A
Key Strategies- “Use open-ended questions.
Avoid leading questions.
Minimize suggestive questioning.”
10
Q
What is a common theme in children’s testimony?
A
Children’s testimony often relates to negative or traumatic experiences
11
Q
How does stress impact memory, specifically in traumatic events?
A
Stress can impact memory, with central details (e.g., main stressors) being retained well, while peripheral details may be less clear.
12
Q
What is a common psychological response of child sexual abuse victims that affects memory?
A
Child sexual abuse victims often experience self-blame and helplessness, making it a focal point in memory and trauma debates.
13
Q
How does the memory of traumatic events generally compare to non-traumatic memories?
A
The memory of traumatic events typically aligns with cognitive principles governing distinctive non-traumatic memories.
14
Q
What is a point of debate regarding trauma and memory?
A
There is ongoing debate about the existence of “special memory mechanisms” (e.g., repression) in traumatic contexts.
15
Q
What is one theory about how trauma affects memory?
A
Some theories suggest that trauma enhances memory for trauma-related details, as seen in PTSD symptoms like overfocusing on trauma cues.
16
Q
What is another theory about how trauma affects memory?
A
Other theories propose that trauma can lead to memory gaps (e.g., amnesia for incest) or poorer recall in cases of multiple traumatic experiences.
17
Q
How does the frequency of traumatic events impact memory recall?
A
Children exposed to single traumatic events may recall details better than those subjected to repeated trauma.
18
Q
Why are these findings about trauma and memory important?
A
These findings are crucial for understanding and interpreting children’s testimony in legal contexts.
19
Q
How does avoidant coping impact a child’s memory of a traumatic event?
A
Children with avoidant coping strategies tend to avoid thoughts, discussions, or reminders of the traumatic experience, leading to incomplete and less detailed memories.
20
Q
What is the role of parental minimization in a child’s coping strategy?
A
Parental minimization or ignoring a child’s distress can reinforce avoidant coping, hindering the integration of the traumatic event into their overall memory.
21
Q
How does parental support influence a child’s memory of a traumatic event?
A
Supportive parent-child interactions encourage rehearsal and reactivation of event details, strengthening memory traces and enhancing long-term retention.
22
Q
What is the empirical evidence supporting the positive impact of parental support?
A
Children who received maternal support after disclosing abuse and discussed the event provided more accurate and detailed accounts and made fewer omission errors years later compared to unsupported children.
23
Q
What is Suggestibility?
A
Suggestibility is how external factors (like leading questions) and internal factors (like age and cognitive development) can influence a person’s memory and their ability to accurately report events.
24
Q
How does false information impact memory?
A
False information can- “Hinder the recall of accurate details
Alter true memories
Lead to false confessions or accusations”
25
Who is most susceptible to suggestion?
Young children, especially preschoolers, are particularly vulnerable to suggestion due to their developing cognitive abilities and reliance on adults.
26
How does suggestibility relate to legal contexts?
Children are generally less suggestible about negative events (like abuse) compared to positive or neutral ones. This is crucial for accurate reporting in legal proceedings.
27
What are some cognitive and social influences on children's eyewitness memory?
Young children have limited knowledge and memory strategies, making it harder for them to recall events independently. They are also more susceptible to suggestions, especially when their original memories are weak.
28
How can false memories be formed in children?
Strong or repeated suggestions, especially in accusatory contexts, can create false memories. Preschoolers, in particular, may struggle to distinguish between real experiences and suggestions from interviewers.
29
What is the role of social pressure in children's eyewitness testimony?
Children may adopt suggestions to please adults or avoid negative reactions, perceiving pressure to conform to authority figures.
30
How can we mitigate the risks of suggestibility in children's eyewitness testimony?
To reduce the risk of false memories and inaccurate testimony, "Avoid misleading questions and suggestive contexts.
Minimize delays between the event and questioning.
Note" , While strong original memories can sometimes resist misinformation, it's important to be cautious and use appropriate interviewing techniques.
31
What is the strongest predictor of suggestibility?
Age. Preschool children are the most suggestible, but even adults can be influenced by suggestion.
32
How do individual differences affect suggestibility?
While findings are inconsistent, language ability and self-concept can play a role. Children with mental retardation may be more suggestible, but intelligence itself is not a significant factor in the normal population.
33
What is the role of parenting in suggestibility?
Supportive parenting fosters positive self-concepts, making children more resistant to inconsistent suggestions. Conversely, poor self-concepts and unsupportive parenting can increase suggestibility.
34
How do cultural influences impact suggestibility?
In cultures emphasizing politeness or obedience to adults, children may struggle to reject false suggestions from authority figures.
35
What is the challenge in child disclosure?
Children's likelihood of disclosing crimes like child sexual abuse through free-recall and open-ended questions is debated.
36
What is the goal of specialized techniques in child forensic interviews?
To increase disclosure, accuracy, and the amount of information provided by the child while minimizing inaccuracies.
37
What is the primary recommendation for questioning children?
Protocols recommend relying primarily on free-recall and open-ended prompts.
38
Under what conditions is specific questioning permitted?
Specific questioning is permitted under controlled and careful conditions.
39
What is Encoding Specificity?
Effective retrieval of information depends on how it was originally encoded and stored.
40
What is Varied Retrieval?
Using diverse methods to retrieve information can enhance recall accuracy.
41
What are the Core Principles of CI? Back:
Mental Reinstatement, Recreate the original context of the event.
Report Everything , "Share all details, no matter how minor.
Reverse-Order Recall" "Recall the event in reverse order.
Change Perspective" Recall the event from a different viewpoint.
42
What are the Original CI Techniques?
Original CI techniques, designed for adults, include social techniques like rapport building and avoiding interruptions.
43
What are the Benefits of Revised CI for Professional Use?
Revised CI can elicit more correct information than control interviews.
44
What are the Challenges of Revised CI, especially for younger children?
Reverse-order recall and change perspective techniques may increase incorrect details in younger children.
45
What are the Strengths of Revised CI?
Mental reinstatement and report everything techniques can reduce misinformation effects, even in preschoolers.
46
What is Narrative Elaboration (NE)?
NE is a technique that uses pre-interview training, instructions, and techniques to help children recall events. It focuses on general tools rather than specific event cues.
47
What are the objectives of NE?
To address children's lack of knowledge about listener expectations
To improve their memory search strategies
To train children to provide detailed and relevant information
48
What are the key tools used in NE?
Picture cards are used as external cues to guide children in reporting forensically significant information categories.
49
Is NE effective?
NE enhances children's eyewitness recall without increasing inaccuracies in reports from children aged 3 to 11.
50
What are the phases of the NICHD Protocol?
Rapport-Building Phase, "Establishing a comfortable environment.
Presubstantive Phase" , "Training children to respond to open-ended prompts.
Substantive Phase" Shifting focus to the substantive issue, prioritizing open-ended questions and probes.
Closing Phase, Using option-posing questions to gather essential details.
51
What is the purpose of the NICHD Protocol?
To translate research-based recommendations into operational guidelines for interviewing child witnesses.
52
How does the NICHD Protocol enhance recall?
By using recall-memory prompts, the protocol helps children access and report more accurate information.
53
Who is the NICHD Protocol effective for?
The protocol has been extensively tested with alleged child victims of sexual offenses and proven effective for children aged 4 and older.
54
What is the goal of advances in child investigative interviewing?
To enhance the usefulness and accuracy of children's testimony.
55
What is the Barnahus Model?
A Nordic innovation where interviews and medical examinations occur in a child-friendly environment to promote interdisciplinary collaboration.
56
How does the Barnahus Model relate to the NICHD Protocol?
Countries like Finland, Iceland, and Sweden incorporate methods inspired by the NICHD Protocol in their Barnahus Model.
57
What is the foundation of the NICHD Protocol?
The NICHD Protocol is grounded in research and expert consensus about children's memory, communication, and social skills.
58
What is the purpose of the NICHD Protocol?
To provide structured guidelines to enhance the quality and reliability of forensic interviews with children.
59
What is the purpose of the NICHD Protocol?
The NICHD Protocol translates research into practical steps to improve the quality of child investigative interviews, aiming to obtain accurate information and promote children's well-being.
60
How does the NICHD Protocol consider child development?
The protocol addresses children's linguistic abilities, memory retrieval capacities, suggestibility, and the impact of stress and trauma.
61
What research knowledge is incorporated into the NICHD Protocol?
The protocol integrates advancements in understanding memory functions and children's suggestibility.
62
In what types of cases is the NICHD Protocol applied?
The NICHD Protocol is applied in cases of suspected sexual or physical abuse.
63
What is the negative impact of suggestive interviewing?
Suggestive interviewing can contaminate children's accounts, leading to inaccurate or false information. This can be influenced by interviewer bias, preconceived notions, and social pressure.
64
How can question types influence children's responses?
Option-posing questions and repeated suggestive questions can communicate expected answers, leading to persistent false allegations or contradictory responses. Positive or negative reinforcement can exacerbate inaccuracies.
65
How does misinformation affect memory, especially in children?
Misinformation can distort memories, and preschool children are particularly vulnerable. However, suggestibility decreases with age.
66
What are the implications of suggestive techniques for children's testimonies?
Suggestive techniques can yield accurate abuse reports, but they also risk shaping inaccurate responses, which can be used to discredit testimony in court.
67
How can we reduce suggestibility in children's interviews?
Research shows that children can resist suggestive questioning under supportive conditions. Interview factors, such as question framing, are more critical than individual traits in reducing suggestibility.
68
What is the purpose of the Introductory Phase?
To build trust, explain the interview process, and set ground rules.
69
What is the goal of the Rapport-Building Phase?
To create a supportive environment and familiarize children with expected detail levels through open-ended prompts about a neutral event.
70
What is the purpose of the Transitional Section?
To identify the target event using open-ended prompts and move to focused prompts if necessary.
71
How does the Substantive Phase gather information?
It focuses on free recall using open-ended prompts like "Tell me everything." Follow-up and cued questions are used to expand on details. Option-posing questions are used sparingly, and suggestive questions are avoided.
72
What is the purpose of the Revised NICHD Protocol (RP)?
The RP aims to address challenges in disclosing abuse, particularly in reluctant children, by focusing on trust, cooperation, and socio-emotional support.
73
What are the key modifications in the RP? Back:
Reordering phases to prioritize rapport-building
Enhancing support during the presubstantive phase
Emphasizing sensitive and supportive interviewing techniques
74
What evidence supports the effectiveness of the RP?
A large study in Israel showed significantly higher abuse allegations with the RP compared to the Standard Protocol. Additionally, supportive environments like the Barnahus model can reduce stress, enhance memory retrieval, and improve disclosure rates.
75
How are interviewers trained to use the RP?
Evidence-based programs train interviewers to recognize and address children's reluctance. "Train-the-trainer" models improve skills through mentorship, feedback, and systematic coding of interviews.
76
What are the challenges to child disclosure?
Children may be reluctant to disclose abuse due to intrafamilial relationships, fear, embarrassment, or legal concerns.
77
How does supportive interviewing help?
Supportive interviewing can help overcome barriers to disclosure, especially when the perpetrator is a family member.
78
What are future directions for research on child interviews?
Continued research is needed to evaluate the effectiveness of the RP across various abuse cases. It's crucial to ensure evidence-based, high-quality guidelines for interviewing children.
79
Current Challenges in Investigative Interviews
Field studies show interviewers rarely use recommended techniques (open-ended questions).
Option-posing and suggestive questions are overused.
80
Training Limitations in Investigative Interviews
Poor techniques persist even among trained professionals.
Brief training programs are ineffective.
Systematic training with feedback shows promise.
81
The Barnahus Model
Norway uses child-friendly Barnahus centers for forensic interviews.
This approach reduces stress and improves interview quality.
82
Focus of Future Research in Investigative Interviews
Evaluate long-term effectiveness of training programs.
Assess interview quality for vulnerable groups (preschoolers, intellectually disabled).
Analyze the impact of questioning techniques on children's responses.
83
Why are props and cues important in child forensic interviews?
Props can help children access stored memories that may not be easily recalled through free-recall or open-ended questions.
84
What are some examples of props used in child forensic interviews?
Real objects, scale models, dolls, toys, photographs, and drawings can be used as props.
85
What is the Encoding Specificity Principle?
The effectiveness of a retrieval prop depends on its match with how the memory was originally encoded and stored.
86
How do props benefit younger children?
Younger children, especially, benefit from props that align closely with their original sensory and perceptual experiences.
87
How do props impact children's recall?
Props can help children recall events but may also increase errors, especially for younger children. Factors like the event type, prop nature, and child's age influence their effectiveness.
88
What are the benefits and risks of real props?
Real props can facilitate retrieval for children aged 3-10, especially when they closely match the event. However, they can also introduce errors, particularly for younger children.
89
How do toys and dolls impact children's recall?
Toys and dolls may increase commission errors and reduce accuracy, especially with preschoolers.
90
How do drawings impact children's recall?
Drawings can enhance completeness and accuracy for children aged 5 and older when paired with specific, nonleading prompts. For preschoolers, results are mixed, with potential for both increased details and inaccuracies.
91
What is the best approach to using props and drawings?
There's no one-size-fits-all approach. A combination of free-recall, specific, and prop-assisted questions is being researched to identify the most effective strategies.
92
What are the two main types of photographic lineups? Back:
Includes the suspect. Children age 5 and older perform comparably to adults in identifying the correct person.
Target-Absent Lineup
93
What is a challenge with simultaneous lineups?
Simultaneous lineups encourage relative judgment, where witnesses compare lineup members to each other. This can lead to errors, especially in target-absent lineups.
94
What is an alternative to simultaneous lineups?
Sequential lineups, where witnesses view photos one at a time, can reduce false identifications in target-absent lineups for adults. However, they may not significantly reduce errors for children.
95
How can we improve children's accuracy in lineups?
Simple training techniques can reduce guessing in target-absent lineups, especially for older children.
96
What are some social and emotional effects of legal involvement on child witnesses?
Repeated interviews
Harsh cross-examinations
Facing defendants
Lack of parental support
Stress
Difficulty speaking about traumatic experiences
Reduced information provided in court
97
How does testifying impact child witnesses?
Initial disclosures may be more detailed than courtroom testimonies
Testifying may benefit some children
Testifying may slow recovery for others, especially in severe abuse cases
98
What are the long-term effects of legal involvement on child sexual abuse victims?
Multiple testimonies in severe cases increase risk of long-term emotional harm
These children need the most protection during legal proceedings
99
How can legal proceedings be improved to protect child witnesses?
Procedural modifications (e.g., testifying via closed-circuit television)
Multidisciplinary investigations at child advocacy centers
Limiting interviews to a single session
100
What is hearsay in the context of child abuse trials?
Hearsay is when adults recount children's out-of-court statements at trial. While generally discouraged, there are exceptions for child sexual abuse cases.
101
How does hearsay impact juror perceptions of child witness credibility?
Jurors generally find children's live testimony more credible than hearsay or closed-circuit television testimony.
102
What methods are used to protect children from the trauma of courtroom appearances?
Hearsay and closed-circuit television are methods used to reduce stress on child witnesses, particularly in cases of child sexual abuse. These methods are common in many European countries.
103
What is a Court-Appointed Expert (Perito)?
A Perito is a psychologist nominated by a judge to provide expert opinions in a criminal case.
104
What is the role of the Public Prosecutor (PM)?
The PM leads criminal proceedings, collects evidence, and may appoint a psychologist as a technical consultant to provide expertise.
105
Who appoints a Technical Consultant for the Defense (CTP)?
The defense team or the civil party appoints a CTP to provide expert opinions on behalf of the defense.
106
What is the role of the Technical Consultant (CT) during the SIT?
The CT assists the Public Prosecutor during the SIT, acting as an auxiliary to the Judicial Police with necessary expertise.
107
What is the purpose of the SIT?
The SIT is conducted during preliminary investigations to gather testimony from the offended party, especially in cases involving minors or vulnerable adults.
108
What legal framework governs the SIT?
Articles 351 and 362 of the Italian Criminal Procedure Code (c.p.p.) mandate expert assistance for minors or vulnerable adults and aim to prevent victim-offender contact and limit repeated testimonies.
109
What are best practices for conducting victim interviews?
To avoid bias, suggestion, and to elicit accurate and complete memories, investigative interview protocols should be used during the SIT.
110
What is the key difference between the S.I.T. and a Technical Consultation?
The S.I.T. is a preliminary and exploratory phase, while a Technical Consultation is methodologically detailed and focuses on specific evaluations, guided by the expert's mandate.
111
What is the role of the expert in formulating questions during a Technical Consultation?
The expert participates in defining questions posed by the magistrate but is limited to providing technical opinions. They cannot determine the "truth of facts" or verify the credibility of statements. However, they can evaluate psychological functioning and the "clinical truth."
112
What is the role of the Technical Consultant (CT) in assessing testimonial capacity?
The CT evaluates the presumed victim's ability to provide testimony, focusing on their cognitive and emotional capabilities. The goal is to assess their ability to accurately recount events, not to verify the occurrence of the crime.
113
What is generic testimonial capacity?
Generic testimonial capacity refers to basic cognitive abilities like memory, language, thought processes, and reality testing. These abilities are evaluated in the context of the individual's age, emotional state, and relationship environment.
114
What is specific testimonial capacity?
Specific testimonial capacity refers to the ability to recall specific events, considering factors like the context of the event, the manner of reporting, and the relationship with the alleged perpetrator.
115
What is the first area of investigation for evaluating testimonial capacity?
General cognitive capacity, including source monitoring.
116
What is the second area of investigation for evaluating testimonial capacity?
Ability to understand verbal language.
117
What is the third area of investigation for evaluating testimonial capacity?
Autobiographical memory.
118
What is the fourth area of investigation for evaluating testimonial capacity?
Age-appropriate ability to distinguish between reality and fantasy, plausible and implausible events, and absurd and plausible scenarios.
119
What is the fifth area of investigation for evaluating testimonial capacity?
Ability to discriminate and interpret one's own or others' mental states.
120
What is the sixth area of investigation for evaluating testimonial capacity?
Level of suggestibility.
121
What is the ideal setting for a psychological evaluation?
A comfortable, distraction-free environment is ideal. Sessions should be videotaped to preserve statements and minimize repeated meetings.
122
What are the key rules for conducting clinical interviews?
Explain the purpose of the session.
Use age-appropriate language.
Listen without interruption.
Encourage free narrative.
Use play as a communication tool for young children.
123
What types of psychological tests are used in evaluations?
Personality tests
Neuropsychological tests
Cognitive level tests
Performance-based projective tests or self-report tests
Psychographic tests (common for minors)
124
How are interviews and tests combined in psychological evaluations?
Interviews and tests are integrated to assess cognitive competencies and emotional-affective capabilities.
125
What is essential for professionals involved in collecting testimony from minors?
Professionals, including psychologists, psychiatrists, child neuropsychiatrists, judges, lawyers, and judicial police, should possess specific skills and receive updated training in forensic psychology and testimony-related practices.
126
When should a minor's testimony be obtained?
The minor should be heard as soon as possible in an adversarial setting, using appropriate interview protocols. Repeated interviews should be approached with caution due to potential memory changes.
127
When should psychological or psychotherapeutic support be provided to a minor involved in legal proceedings?
Psychological support should generally be provided after the minor has provided testimony during the preliminary investigation phase, except in urgent or severe cases.
128
What is the importance of separating roles in legal proceedings involving minors?
The role of the expert conducting the hearing or evaluation should be distinct from that of a therapist or support provider. This separation ensures objectivity and avoids potential conflicts of interest.
129
What are the qualifications required for experts involved in child cases?
Experts must have specific and documented expertise. Parties involved in the proceedings have the right to question the expert's competence and the relevance of the questions assigned.
130
How should interview procedures be adapted for minors?
Interview procedures must be tailored to the minor's cognitive and emotional development. An auxiliary expert can assist in facilitating communication and gathering relevant information while minimizing the risk of secondary victimization.
131
Avoiding Bias During Interviews**
To minimize interviewer bias, the expert collecting testimony should be different from the expert assessing suitability to testify.
132
Minimizing Interviews with Minors**
Conduct as few interviews as possible. Inform the child about the purpose and allow them to say "I don't remember" or "I don't know".
133
Proper Interview Recording**
Audio-video record interviews to capture the interaction (verbal and non-verbal) between the expert and the minor.
134
Interview Questioning**
Avoid questions revealing expectations or presuming facts under investigation.
135
Interview Setting and Comfort**
Schedule interviews at times and locations ensuring the minor's comfort and preventing contact with the accused. Adapt interview duration and methods to the child's age and emotional state.
136
Verifying Prior Accounts**
During the interview, ask the minor if they have previously recounted the alleged events to others and how.
137
Preferred Setting for Acquiring Minor's Statements**
The pre-trial hearing is the preferred setting to obtain the minor's statements during legal proceedings.
138
Minimizing Risk of Secondary Victimization**
Conduct interviews during the investigative phase (S.I.T.) only when necessary to avoid secondary victimization and memory contamination.
139
Expert Evaluation for Minors Under 12
Except in exceptional cases, minors under 12 should undergo an expert evaluation to verify their ability to testify.
140
Question Formulation for Minors
Questions should be formulated to avoid implying judgments, definitions, or other aspects within the judge's domain.
141
Expert's Role in Assessing Credibility
Experts should avoid using terms like "credibility," "reliability," "truthfulness," or "compatibility." Instead, they should focus on what is scientifically validated.
142
General and Specific Testimonial Abilities
General abilities include cognitive functions, while specific abilities relate to the minor's capacity to recall and report specific events, considering potential influences.
143
Assessing Specific Abilities
When assessing specific abilities, consider the circumstances and methods through which the minor recounted the events to others.
144
Expert's Role in Determining Truthfulness
The expert cannot determine the truthfulness or validity of the minor's narrative. Scientific methods cannot be used to establish the factual accuracy of the narrative.
145
Timing of the Ability to Testify Assessment
The assessment of the ability to testify should precede the minor's interview. In intrafamilial abuse cases, evaluations may extend to family members and the social context.
146
Necessity of Direct Examination
A direct examination of the minor is necessary to assess their ability to testify, unless there are exceptional circumstances.
147
Psychological Indicators of Victimization
There are no specific psychological, emotional, or behavioral indicators that definitively indicate victimization. The absence of such indicators does not rule out victimization.
148
Diagnosing PTSD or Adjustment Disorder in Minors
Presence of symptoms alone is insufficient. Other origins possible.
149
Factors Influencing Minors' Statements
High-conflict parental separations
Abuse allegations emerging later
Suggestion and "declarative contagion"
Conditioning or manipulation (unintentional too)
150
Audio-Video Recordings in Minor's Examination
All recordings involving adults listening to minors must be included in records to assess suggestibility.
