Psychopathology Flashcards
1
Q
Social norms definition
A
The way individuals are expected to behave in a certain situation
2
Q
Deviations from social norms definition
A
Concerns a behavior that is different from the accepted standards of a behaviour in society
3
Q
Statistical infrequency definition
A
An individuals trait, thinking a behaviour is considered abnormal if it is rare or unusual
4
Q
Failure to function adequately definition
A
An inability to cope with the demands of day to day living
5
Q
Deviation from ideal mental health definition
A
Not meeting a set criteria for good mental health
6
Q
What is cultural relativism
A
The meanings of behaviours are relative to a specific cultural setting
7
Q
An example of a deviation from social norms
A
Antisocial personality disorder
8
Q
Strengths of the deviations from social norms as a definition of abnormality
A
- The definition can help individuals who are mentally ill. This can help identify mental health problems so they can be treated
- Issues in children can be seen when compared to typical development milestones. They can be compared to other kids so you can see if they are behind in development E.g. dyslexia
9
Q
Limitations of the deviations from social norms as a definition of abnormality
A
- Cultural differences are not taken into account which can lead to misdiagnosis from individuals of a different culture
- Social norms change over timer so older people may be misdiagnosed
- Does not distinguish between positive and negative deviations. People who has good differences like intelligence may be misdiagnosed
- Deviating from societies expectations does not always mean illness, so over diagnosis may occur. Some normal people may be treated for an illness just for being slightly different
- Under diagnosis may occur as those with mental illnesses may not always show outwardly different behaviour
10
Q
What is normal distribution?
A
A distribution of scores where the majority are in the middle set.
11
Q
What percentage may be considered statistically infrequent on a bell curve?
A
Top and bottom 2.5%
12
Q
Standard deviation is…
A
A measure pf the dispersion scores in a data set
13
Q
Is statistical deviation that can provide justification that an individual actually needs psychological treatment a strength or weakness? Why?
A
It is a strength because even if an individual appears not to deviate from social norms but score high on a depression test, they need help
14
Q
Is statistical deviation fails to distinguish between positive rare behaviours and problematic rare behaviours a strength or weakness?
A
A limitation because a high IQ for example would be treated as abnormal behaviour but it’s not a behaviour that would be considered as abnormal
15
Q
Is some problematic behaviours are very common a strength or weakness of statistical infrequency as a definition of abnormality a strength or weakness?
A
A limitation because 1 in 4 individuals will experience depression. Therefore it is common and deviation would not consider it as abnormal
16
Q
Is the definition is less judgmental of individuals than other definitions (statistical infrequency) and it is objective a strength or limitation?
A
A strength because it focuses on pure numbers and therefore subjectivity and cultural issues are not a factor
17
Q
Is the fact that statistical deviation allows for comparisons within the population in a useful way a strength or limitation?
A
A strength because population can identify individuals falling behind in areas of development, for example learning disabilities
18
Q
Is the fact that the 5% cut off appears to be an arbitrary label of abnormality a strength or weakness of of statistical infrequency as a definition of abnormality?
A
Limitation because the line between normal and abnormal is a subjective decision as there is no clear way of measuring where the line should be.
19
Q
What did Rosenham and Seligman propose?
A
Signs that can be used to determine who is not coping with the demands of day to day life
20
Q
What are the signs that someone is not coping (failure to function adequately)?
A
- Personal distress 2. Maladaptive behaviour 3. Unpredictable 4. Irrationality 5. Observer discomfort 6. Violation of moral standards 7. Unconventionality (Penis, Makes, Ursula, Irritated, Otherwise, Vagina, Uncomfy)
21
Q
What is the GAF (global assessment to functioning scale)?
A
The scale used to assess the extent to which an individual is functioning adequately
22
Q
What are and what do absent/minimal symptoms of an individual functioning adequately look like?
A
- mild anxiety like before an exam
- good functioning in all areas
- interested in a range of activities
- socially effective
- satisfied with life
23
Q
What are and what do mild symptoms of an individual functioning adequately look like?
A
- depressed mood and mild insomnia or maybe experiencing some difficulty in school or socially
- generally functioning pretty well
- generally happy
24
Q
What are and what do moderate symptoms of an individual functioning adequately look like?
A
- moderate difficulty in social or school functioning
- conflicts with peers
- little happiness
- occasional panic attacks
25
What are and what do persistent danger of severely hurting self or others symptoms of an individual functioning adequately look like?
* reoccurring violence
* minimal hygiene
* persistent emotional outbursts
* seriously unhappy
* suicidal
26
Strengths of failure to function adequately definition of abnormality
* Recognises importance of personal subjective experience of the sufferer taking thoughts and feelings into consideration
* prevents over misdiagnosis
* GAF assesses degrees of abnormality meaning it is objective and can prioritise who needs help more urgently
27
Weaknesses of failure to function adequately definition of abnormality
* An abnormal individual may sometimes function adequately and not meet requirements of someone not coping. Can lead to misdiagnosis of mental illness
* Distress caused to others not considered which can impact children
28
What is ideal mental health?
* Functioning adequately
* Positive attitude
* Autonomy
* Independence
29
Criteria for ideal mental health (Jahoda 1958)
1. No symptoms of distress
2. Ability to act rationally
3. Working to fulfil our full potential (self-actualisation)
4. Realistic view of world
5. Good self esteem and lack of guilt
6. Coping well with stress
Absence of any one of these indicates abnormality
30
What does Jahodas criteria indicate?
The fewer Jahodas criteria an individual displays, the more mentally unhealthy they are deemed to be
31
Strengths of Jahoda's criteria
* Specific areas of dysfunction are recognised so treatment can be targeted to a specific area like self-esteem
* Positive aspects of behaviour focused on so focuses on what an individual is capable of
32
Limitations of Jahoda's criteria
* Aspects of behaviour cannot be measured objectively so it's based on opinion and biased, affecting the validity
* Criteria may be too demanding for an individual to meet so can cause over diagnosis
33
What is a phobia?
An irrational fear of an object or situation
34
What is a phobia stimulus
Thing a person is afraid of
35
What are the behavioural characteristics of phobias?
1. Panic - anxiety when faced with phobic stimulus 2. Avoidance - effort to avoid coming into contact with phobic stimulus 3. Endurance - the ability to conduct normal activities hindered
36
What are the emotional characteristics of phobias?
Anxiety = More generalised and long time Fear = A very strong emotional response, short acting and directed towards the phobic stimulus
37
Unreasonable reaction
The emotional responses we experience in relation to phobic stimuli go beyond what is reasonable.
38
What are the three cognitive characteristics of phobias
- Selective attention = pulls attention away from other things - Irrational beliefs = ideas that are not logical - Cognitive disorders = mind is convinced of something completely untrue
39
What model is used in the behaviourist approach to explain phobias?
Two- process model
40
What happens in process 1 in the two-process model to explain phobias?
The phobia is acquired by classical conditioning (learning through association) E.g. little albert UCS = loud noise UCR = fear NS = white rat CS = white rat CR = fear His phobia applied to all white fluffy things via stimulus generalisation
41
What happens in process 2 of the two-process model in explaining phobias?
The phobia is maintained by operant conditioning, negative reinforcement. It means the individual avoids a situation that is unpleasant results in the desirable consequence as they escape the fear or anxiety of a phobic stimulus and so the phobia is maintained.
42
What is operant conditioning
Learning through reinforcement
43
What is classical conditioning
Learning through association
44
What are the two types of operant conditioning and describe them
* Positive reinforcement = being given something pleasant for exhibiting desired behaviours
* Negative reinforcement = Doing something which results in taking away something unpleasant, resulting in desirable consequence
45
Strength of behaviourist approach to explaining phobias
* Two process model went beyond classical conditioning as an explanation, and explained how they were maintained and why it was necessary for patients to feared stimulus
* Shown to work for pateints in a therapeutic setting
46
Limitations of behaviourist approach to explaining phobias
* Not all aspects of phobic behaviour are explaine, e.g. evolutionary behaviours are likely to play a role in development of phobias
* So explanation doesn't account for innate behaviours so theory is challenged
* Some people develop a phobia without having a related bad experience, so the theory doesn't explain how it could have developed
* Not all avoidance behaviour associated with phobias seems to be the result of anxiety reduction
* Two process model suggests avoidance is motivated by anxiety reduction so theory is challenged
47
Behaviourist approach to treating phobias: what is systematic desensitisation
Involves replacing the negative association of the phobic stimulus with something positive
1. Anxiety hierarchy created
2. Relaxation technique taught
3. Exposure to lowest stage of hierarchy and move up
48
Gilroy (20030 systematic desensitisation study
* Method; 42 patients recieved treatment for arachnaphobia. Each recieved 3 x 45 min SD and control recieved only relaxation
* Results: Found SD group less fearful than control group
* Conclusion: Sd is effective at helping anxiety as it is long lasting. Remained 3 years later
49
What is flooding
Exposure to an extreme form of the phobic stimulus for an extended period of time (2-3 hours typically).
Works by the conditioned stimulus being paired without the unconditioned stimulus, so the conditioned response is extinguished
50
Wolpe (1960) flooding case
* He took a girl who was scared of cars and drove her around for 4 hours. At first she was hysterical but calmed down when she realised she was in no real danger. Her phobia disappeared.
* A case study
51
Systematic desensitisation evaluation
3 strengths:
* Research shows the effects of SD are long lasting and still effective 33 months after treatment - cost effective and convenient
* Can be used for all individuals unlike flooding as some may not be able to give consent to flooding so it can be applied to whole population
* Offers more control to patient and less trauma than flooding so fewer patients drop out of therapy
52
Flooding evaluation
* Strength; Offers results in as little as one session so treatment is cheap in terms of therapists time
* Weakness: Less effectve for complex social phobias as irrational thoughts are not addressed by behavioral treatments
* Weakness; Highly traumatic and patient may withdraw themselves so money and time could be wasted preparing a treatment that the patient doesn't see through
53
The diagnostic and statistical manual (DSM-5) for the criteria for depression
* Depressed mood for nearly all day nearly everyday
* Diminished interest in all/ most activities
* Weight loss when not dieting
* Insomnia / hypersomnia nearly every day
* Fatigue nearly everyday
* _Psychomotor agitation or retardation_
* Worthlessness
* Diminshed ability to think or concentrate
* Suicidal ideation
54
Two types of depression
* Bipolar
* Unipolar
55
Behavioural characteristics of depression
* Loss of energy
* Social impairment
* Weight changes
* Poor personal hygiene
* Sleep disturbances
56
Emotional characteristics of depression
* Loss of enthusiasm
* Constant low mood
* Low self esteem
57
Cognitive characterstics of depression
* Reduced concentration
* Poor memory
* Negativity
* Delusions
58
Schema definition
Collection of ideas based on an object, person, or group of people based on experience
59
Beck's cognitive theory of depression
Negative schemas dominate how the world is seen interpreting all info about the slef in a negative way
E.g. expecting to fail, feeling worthless
* Fuelled by cognitive biases which are irrational thoughts
60
Triad of impairments
Beck built on the idea of maladaptive responses and suggested people view themselves, the world and future in pessimistic ways
61
Weissman and Beck (1978) - an investigation into the use of negative schemas
* Method: thought processes measured using the dysfunctional attitude scale (DAS). Participants (depressed or not) asked to fill in questionnaire
* Result: found depressed patients made more negative assessments than non-depressed people. Improvement in slef ratings found when therapy given
* Conclusion: DAS can be used to distinguish those sufering from depression. Negative schemas can lead to depression. Therapy can help improve amount of negative schemas
62
Ellis's ABC model of depression
* A = activating agent (external event that triggers irrational thoughts)
* B = beliefs that are irrational ('mustabatory thinking' and 'utopianism-life'
* C = consequences - behaviours that result from the activating agent e.g. depression
63
What is utopianism
Belief that life should always be fair
64
What is mustatbatory thinking
Belief that it is a major disaster when life doesn't go your way
65
Strength of cognitive theories of depression
* Becks theory can be applied in therapy as CBT with successful results so it helps people
66
Weaknesses of cognitive theories of depression
* Do negative thoughts actually casue dperession or are they just the effect of depression - limitation because cannot infer cause and effect only that there is a relationship
* Becks theory can't explain all aspects of depression - is not comprehensive, questioning validity of theory
* Ellis's explanation accounts for for types of depression that follow an activating agent, but can't account for depression without a preceeding trigger so it is a weak theory
67
What is CBT
Cognitive behavioural therapy
* Usually used for depression and a range of other mental health problems
68
Beck's CBT
1. Identifying the patients problem
2. Challenging thoughts and setting goals
3. Work set to change thoughts and behaviours
69
CBT evidence
* Department of health 2001
* Stated CBT is one of the most effevtive treatments if used in conjunction with antidepressant drugs
70
Ellis's rational emotive behavioural therapy (REBT)
* A = Activation/ activating event
* B = Beliefs that are irrational
* C = Consequence
* D = dispute (challenges irrationality)
* E = Effect (of the challenge)
71
What does REBT involve?
An arguement between the therapist and the patient in the dispute phase as the patient attempts to defend their irrational thoughts
72
What is behavioural activation?
Therapist encourages individual to be more active and engage in enjoyable activation
73
Ellis's REBT evidence
David et al (2008)
* Patients given 14 weeks of REBT
* Compared to those given antidepressants only
* 6 months after treatment REBT patients remained in a better mood than the antidepressant group
* So REBT a better treatment alone than antidepressants alone
74
Strength of the cognitive approach to treating depression
* Cognitive therapy just as effective as medication. No side effects from therapy unlike medication
75
Weaknesses of cognitive approach to treating depression
* Doesn't work on severe depression as patients can't conc or engage with therapist so treatment isn't always effective
* CBT focuses on present and future so cannot help people with past traumas
* Challenging thoughts makes people uncomfortable so people won't finish treatment
76
What are obsessions
Thoughts
E.g. obsession that their partner doesn't love them or that somebody might break in
77
What are compulsions
Behaviours
78
OCD cycle:
* Obsessive thought
* Anxiety
* Compulsive behaviour
* Temporary relief
* REPEAT
79
Behavioural characteristics of OCD
* Acting on compulsions
* Repetitive compulsions
* Avoidance
80
Emotional characterstics of OCD
* Anxiety and distress
* Accompanying depression
* Guilt and disgust
81
Cognitive characterstics of OCD
* Obsessive thoughts
* Insight into excessive anxiety
* Cognitive strategies to deal with obsessions
82
Biological explanation for OCD: how are the origins of behaviour in the approach investigated
Twin studies, animal studies
83
Lewis (1936) evidence for bioligcal explanation of OCD
* 5O patients with OCD and family members
* Found 37% had parent with OCD and 21% had sibling with OCD
* So likely to be a genetic element to OCD but not the only factor
* Environment is confounding variable, could be learned
84
Job of 5HT-1D beta
Presence of gene may play a role in ability of an individual to cease repetitive behaviours
85
How might the 5HT-1D beta gene be a cause of OCD
It effects the efficiency of neurotransmitter transport, the 'stop' message is being blocked by action of the gene
86
Neural explanation for OCD
* Serotonin regulates mood
* When levels are low info will not be passed on to subsequent neurons so emotional regulation does not occur
87
The frontal lobe and OCD
It's associated with logic and decision making, leadds to repetitive behaviours
88
Parahippocampal gyrus and OCD
Associated with the processing of unpleasant emotions, could lead to hoarding. Reoccurent, negative mood, behaviour repeated
89
5 HT1D Beta function of bioloogical factor and how does it cause OCD
* It plays a role in ceasing repetitive behaviours
* Can cause OCD by the 'stop' message being blocked by action of a gene
90
Strengths of biological explanation of OCD
* Evidence for genetic link to OCD from twin studies which increases validity of theory as it shows genes increase the likelihood
* Antidepressant drugs have shown to be effective in some cases of OCD, SSRI's increase serotonin in brain. Adds validity to theory because highlights serotonin can be used to treat OCD and a lack of it could be causing OCD
91
Weaknesses of biological explanation of OCD
* Suggestions that over 200 different genes are involved in development of OCD, so we don't know which gene in particular causes OCD weakening theory as it can't be detected in an individual
* More prevelant in individuals who have experienced traumatic incidents in the past so there may be environmental influences on OCD challenging biological theory that only believes genes are involved
* Many individuals who have OCD are also depressed so researchers cannot tell what the extraneous variable is which could be affecting the results, so we can't seperate the causes of OCD and depression
