Psychopathology Flashcards
What is meant by deviation from social norms?
It is an explanation of abnormality
It’s a deviation from unstated rules about how one ought to behave
Anything that violates this rule is seen as abnormal
Evaluate deviation from social norms
What’s considered normal is subject to change over time e.g. Homosexuality
Deviance is often related to context of behaviour e.g. A bikini at the beach is normal, but at a formal event it is abnormal. Therefore deviation cannot offer a complete definition of abnormality
Definition takes into account desirable & undesirable behaviours
What is meant by statistical infrequency?
A definition of abnormality
Abnormality is defined as those behaviours that are extremely rare
Behaviour found in very few people is abnormal
(Usually around 5% of the population)
Evaluate statistical infrequency
Some abnormal behaviour is desirable e.g. High IQ
Similarly some undesirable behaviour is quite normal/common e.g. Depression
The cut off point between normal & abnormal is quite subjective. There is no definite cut off point
What is meant by failure to function adequately?
An explanation for abnormality
Not being able to cope with everyday life:
Dysfunctional behaviour- goes against accepted standard
Observer discomfort - causing distress to others
Unpredictable behaviour - impulsive/uncontrollable
Irrational behaviour - unreasonable/illogical
Personal distress - affected by emotion is excess
Evaluate failure to function adequately
Some supposedly dysfunctional behaviour may be adaptive & functional for a given individual
What is meant by deviation of ideal mental health
An explanation of abnormality
Positive self attitude - high self esteem & strong sense of identity
Self actualisation - extent to which individual develops & reaches capabilities
Accurate perception of reality
Autonomous - independent
Mastery of environment - love, work adapt to new situations
Define phobias
An anxiety disorder, extreme irrational fear of objects or situations
What are the types of phobias?
Specific phobia - fear of objects/situations e.g. Animals/injections/flying
Social phobias - fear of performing some kind of action in presence of others e.g. Social speaking
Agoraphobia - fear of open/public spaces where escape from situation is difficult (feel trapped)
What are the symptoms of phobias?
Emotional - feelings of anxiety/panic/dread
Behavioural - avoid situations where encounter with phobic stimulus is likely
May freeze/faint if encounter occurs
Cognitive - irrational & unreasonable beliefs about the stimulus (resistance to rational arguments)
What is the behaviourist approach to explaining phobias?
Behaviourists believe phobias are learnt in the same way as all behaviours (conditioning)
Classical (initiation) Pain (US) --> anxiety (UR) Dog (NS) Dog bite = pain (US) --> anxiety (UR) Dog (CS) --> anxiety (CR)
Operant (maintenance)
Likelihood of behaviour being repeated if outcome is rewarding
Person avoids avoids phobic stimulus & is rewarded with reduced anxiety (negative reinforcement)
Social learning
Phobia may develop through modelling behaviours of others
E.g. Mother reacting with fear when witnessing spider
Evaluate the behaviourist approach as an explanation for phobias
People with phobias often do recall a traumatic incident with the stimulus. However not all do - suggests other factors contribute to developing a phobia
Barlow & Durand found 50% of people with severe fear of driving had been in a car accident - what about the other 50%?
Darcy found only 7% of people with spider phobias had experienced a traumatic event
Explain systematic desensitisation
Systematic desensitisation uses counter conditioning - associate phobic stimulus with relaxation
1) person makes fear hierarchy from least to most anxiety provoking
2) taught relaxation techniques (deep breathing)
3) patient encounters anxiety provoking situations
4) repeat each stage until the stimulus is eventually associated with relaxation
Evaluate systematic desensitisation
Öhman et al suggested SD may not be as effective at treating phobias that have underlying evolutionary survival components (height/dark)
Explain flooding
The individual is exposed to the phobic stimulus straight away without any gradual build up
The patient is kept in this situation until anxiety has worn off
Evaluate flooding
Works quickly - Ost et al found anxiety was reduced in 90% of patients after just one session
Not for everyone - may cause psychological harm to patients (could end up worse off)
Define depression
A mood disorder where individual feels sad & lacks interest in usual activities. They also have irrational negative thoughts
What is major depression?(unipolar)
An episode of depression that can occur suddenly
Reactive: caused by external factors (death)
Endogenous: caused by internal factors
What is manic depression?(bipolar)
Alternation between 2 extreme moods
Manic: rapid speech, happy, agitated
Depression…
What are the characteristics of depression?
Emotional - extreme feelings of sadness/hopelessness
Anhedonia: no longer enjoy past hobbies
Behavioural - insomnia
Change in appetite
Head/joint/muscle aches
Social withdrawal
Cognitive - persistent negative beliefs about yourself
Suicidal thoughts
Difficulty concentrating
What is the cognitive approach to explaining depression?
Assumed that behaviours are controlled through negative thoughts & beliefs
Ellis’ ABC model
Activating event (fired at work)
Belief (irrational or rational) e.g. I’m not good enough
Consequence (feelings of sadness)
Beck’s negative triad
Depressed people have acquired a negative scheme during childhood (negative view about the world) due to rejection from parents/criticism from teachers
Negative triad focusses on how negative expectations about self, world & future lead to depression
Evaluate the cognitive approach as an explanation for depression
The cognitive approach suggest the client is to blame for disorder (not situational factors) - may be good because it empowers victim to be able to change the way they are
Faulty cognition may only be a result of depression & not cause - may be other factors
Cognitive approach is usefully applied - CBT is found to be very useful form of treating depression when mixed with drug therapy
Explain the cognitive approach to treating depression (challenging irrational thoughts)
D - disputing irrational thoughts
E - effects of disputing
F - the new feelings/emotions produced
REBT - focusses on challenging/disputing irrational thoughts & beliefs and replacing them with effective rational thoughts
- logical disputing: does thinking this way make sense
- empirical disputing - where is proof that belief is accurate
- pragmatic disputing - how is this belief likely to help me
Explain the cognitive approach to treating depression (homework)
Clients are asked to complete homework assignments between therapy sessions
E.g. Looking for new job, asking someone on a date - these are vital for testing irrational beliefs against reality & putting new ones in place
Explain the cognitive approach to treating depression (behavioural activation)
Encouraged to become more engaged in physical activities - being active leads to rewards (antidote for depression)
Explain to cognitive approach to treating depression (unconditional positive regard)
Idea that you need to convince client of their value as a human being
Evaluate the cognitive approach to treating depression
Research support - Ellis claimed 90% success rate for REBT (roughly 27 sessions to complete treatment)
Individual differences - seems to be less suitable for people with high levels of irrational beliefs that are both rigid & resistant to change
Define OCD
An anxiety disorder, anxiety arises through obsessions (persistent thoughts) & compulsions (repeated behaviours)
Compulsions are a response to obsessions & they believe compulsions will reduce anxiety
What are the characteristics of OCD?
Emotional - aware behaviours are excessive so they feel embarrassment
Also feel anxiety & stress
Cognitive - behaviours are recurrent, intrusive thoughts that are perceived as inappropriate or forbidden
Behavioural - compulsive behaviours are performed to reduce anxiety
Behaviours are repeated & unconcealed
Explain the genetic explanations of OCD
COMT gene - regulates production of dopamine
COMT gene is common in OCD patients
High dopamine = OCD
SERT gene - affects transport of serotonin, creating lower levels of the neurotransmitter
High levels of SERT gene have been found in OCD patients
Low serotonin = OCD
Evaluate genetic explanations of OCD
For Billet et al - meta analysis of twins If MZ had OCD, 68% chance of twin having it DZ - 31% This suggest genetics do play a role
Against
Concordance rate doesn’t prove causal relationship
No test found 100% concordance rate therefore there must be other factors
Explain the neural explanations of OCD
Abnormal levels of neurotransmitters have been found in OCD patients
Dopamine levels high for OCD patients
Serotonin levels low for OCD patients
Evaluate neural explanations of OCD
For
Max et al found increased rate of OCD after brain damage to basal ganglia (involved in regulation/production of dopamine)
Against
There wasn’t a 100% concordance rate therefore there must be other factors
Explain the biological approach to treating OCD (SSRIs)
SSRI increase the levels of serotonin - they block the re-uptake of serotonin from the synaptic cleft, leaving more available for the next neuron
Explain the biological approach to treating OCD (tricyclics)
It works by blocking the transporter mechanism that’s reabsorbs serotonin & noradrenaline - more of these neurotransmitters are left in the synapse, therefore prolonging their activity & easing their transmission at next impulse
They have greater side effects than SSRI so are used if SSRI is not effective
Explain the biological approach to treating OCD (anti-anxiety drugs)
Benzodiazepines are used to reduce anxiety
They slow down activity of CNS by enhancing activity of neurotransmitter GABA
When released GABA has general quieting down effects on neurons
Evaluate the biological approach as a treatment for OCD
For
Drug therapies require less time a little effort (compared to therapies)
They are also cheaper compared to psychological treatments
Against
There are side effects - Soomra et al found SSRI side effects (nausea, headaches, insomnia)
