Psychopathology

Question 1

What is meant by deviation from social norms?

Answer 1

It is an explanation of abnormality

It’s a deviation from unstated rules about how one ought to behave
Anything that violates this rule is seen as abnormal

Question 2

Evaluate deviation from social norms

Answer 2

What’s considered normal is subject to change over time e.g. Homosexuality

Deviance is often related to context of behaviour e.g. A bikini at the beach is normal, but at a formal event it is abnormal. Therefore deviation cannot offer a complete definition of abnormality

Definition takes into account desirable & undesirable behaviours

Question 3

What is meant by statistical infrequency?

Answer 3

A definition of abnormality

Abnormality is defined as those behaviours that are extremely rare
Behaviour found in very few people is abnormal
(Usually around 5% of the population)

Question 4

Evaluate statistical infrequency

Answer 4

Some abnormal behaviour is desirable e.g. High IQ
Similarly some undesirable behaviour is quite normal/common e.g. Depression

The cut off point between normal & abnormal is quite subjective. There is no definite cut off point

Question 5

What is meant by failure to function adequately?

Answer 5

An explanation for abnormality

Not being able to cope with everyday life:
Dysfunctional behaviour- goes against accepted standard
Observer discomfort - causing distress to others
Unpredictable behaviour - impulsive/uncontrollable
Irrational behaviour - unreasonable/illogical
Personal distress - affected by emotion is excess

Question 6

Evaluate failure to function adequately

Answer 6

Some supposedly dysfunctional behaviour may be adaptive & functional for a given individual

Question 7

What is meant by deviation of ideal mental health

Answer 7

An explanation of abnormality

Positive self attitude - high self esteem & strong sense of identity

Self actualisation - extent to which individual develops & reaches capabilities

Accurate perception of reality

Autonomous - independent

Mastery of environment - love, work adapt to new situations

Question 8

Define phobias

Answer 8

An anxiety disorder, extreme irrational fear of objects or situations

Question 9

What are the types of phobias?

Answer 9

Specific phobia - fear of objects/situations e.g. Animals/injections/flying

Social phobias - fear of performing some kind of action in presence of others e.g. Social speaking

Agoraphobia - fear of open/public spaces where escape from situation is difficult (feel trapped)

Question 10

What are the symptoms of phobias?

Answer 10

Emotional - feelings of anxiety/panic/dread

Behavioural - avoid situations where encounter with phobic stimulus is likely
May freeze/faint if encounter occurs

Cognitive - irrational & unreasonable beliefs about the stimulus (resistance to rational arguments)

Question 11

What is the behaviourist approach to explaining phobias?

Answer 11

Behaviourists believe phobias are learnt in the same way as all behaviours (conditioning)

Classical (initiation)
Pain (US) --> anxiety (UR)
Dog (NS)
Dog bite = pain (US) --> anxiety (UR)
Dog (CS) --> anxiety (CR)

Operant (maintenance)
Likelihood of behaviour being repeated if outcome is rewarding
Person avoids avoids phobic stimulus & is rewarded with reduced anxiety (negative reinforcement)

Social learning
Phobia may develop through modelling behaviours of others
E.g. Mother reacting with fear when witnessing spider

Question 12

Evaluate the behaviourist approach as an explanation for phobias

Answer 12

People with phobias often do recall a traumatic incident with the stimulus. However not all do - suggests other factors contribute to developing a phobia

Barlow & Durand found 50% of people with severe fear of driving had been in a car accident - what about the other 50%?

Darcy found only 7% of people with spider phobias had experienced a traumatic event

Question 13

Explain systematic desensitisation

Answer 13

Systematic desensitisation uses counter conditioning - associate phobic stimulus with relaxation

1) person makes fear hierarchy from least to most anxiety provoking
2) taught relaxation techniques (deep breathing)
3) patient encounters anxiety provoking situations
4) repeat each stage until the stimulus is eventually associated with relaxation

Question 14

Evaluate systematic desensitisation

Answer 14

Öhman et al suggested SD may not be as effective at treating phobias that have underlying evolutionary survival components (height/dark)

Question 15

Explain flooding

Answer 15

The individual is exposed to the phobic stimulus straight away without any gradual build up
The patient is kept in this situation until anxiety has worn off

Question 16

Evaluate flooding

Answer 16

Works quickly - Ost et al found anxiety was reduced in 90% of patients after just one session

Not for everyone - may cause psychological harm to patients (could end up worse off)

Question 17

Define depression

Answer 17

A mood disorder where individual feels sad & lacks interest in usual activities. They also have irrational negative thoughts

Question 18

What is major depression?(unipolar)

Answer 18

An episode of depression that can occur suddenly
Reactive: caused by external factors (death)
Endogenous: caused by internal factors

Question 19

What is manic depression?(bipolar)

Answer 19

Alternation between 2 extreme moods
Manic: rapid speech, happy, agitated
Depression…

Question 20

What are the characteristics of depression?

Answer 20

Emotional - extreme feelings of sadness/hopelessness
Anhedonia: no longer enjoy past hobbies

Behavioural - insomnia
Change in appetite
Head/joint/muscle aches
Social withdrawal

Cognitive - persistent negative beliefs about yourself
Suicidal thoughts
Difficulty concentrating

Question 21

What is the cognitive approach to explaining depression?

Answer 21

Assumed that behaviours are controlled through negative thoughts & beliefs

Ellis’ ABC model
Activating event (fired at work)
Belief (irrational or rational) e.g. I’m not good enough
Consequence (feelings of sadness)

Beck’s negative triad
Depressed people have acquired a negative scheme during childhood (negative view about the world) due to rejection from parents/criticism from teachers
Negative triad focusses on how negative expectations about self, world & future lead to depression

Question 22

Evaluate the cognitive approach as an explanation for depression

Answer 22

The cognitive approach suggest the client is to blame for disorder (not situational factors) - may be good because it empowers victim to be able to change the way they are

Faulty cognition may only be a result of depression & not cause - may be other factors

Cognitive approach is usefully applied - CBT is found to be very useful form of treating depression when mixed with drug therapy

Question 23

Explain the cognitive approach to treating depression (challenging irrational thoughts)

Answer 23

D - disputing irrational thoughts
E - effects of disputing
F - the new feelings/emotions produced

REBT - focusses on challenging/disputing irrational thoughts & beliefs and replacing them with effective rational thoughts

• logical disputing: does thinking this way make sense
• empirical disputing - where is proof that belief is accurate
• pragmatic disputing - how is this belief likely to help me

Question 24

Explain the cognitive approach to treating depression (homework)

Answer 24

Clients are asked to complete homework assignments between therapy sessions
E.g. Looking for new job, asking someone on a date - these are vital for testing irrational beliefs against reality & putting new ones in place

Question 25

Explain the cognitive approach to treating depression (behavioural activation)

Answer 25

Encouraged to become more engaged in physical activities - being active leads to rewards (antidote for depression)

Question 26

Explain to cognitive approach to treating depression (unconditional positive regard)

Answer 26

Idea that you need to convince client of their value as a human being

Question 27

Evaluate the cognitive approach to treating depression

Answer 27

Research support - Ellis claimed 90% success rate for REBT (roughly 27 sessions to complete treatment)

Individual differences - seems to be less suitable for people with high levels of irrational beliefs that are both rigid & resistant to change

Question 28

Define OCD

Answer 28

An anxiety disorder, anxiety arises through obsessions (persistent thoughts) & compulsions (repeated behaviours)

Compulsions are a response to obsessions & they believe compulsions will reduce anxiety

Question 29

What are the characteristics of OCD?

Answer 29

Emotional - aware behaviours are excessive so they feel embarrassment
Also feel anxiety & stress

Cognitive - behaviours are recurrent, intrusive thoughts that are perceived as inappropriate or forbidden

Behavioural - compulsive behaviours are performed to reduce anxiety
Behaviours are repeated & unconcealed

Question 30

Explain the genetic explanations of OCD

Answer 30

COMT gene - regulates production of dopamine
COMT gene is common in OCD patients
High dopamine = OCD

SERT gene - affects transport of serotonin, creating lower levels of the neurotransmitter
High levels of SERT gene have been found in OCD patients
Low serotonin = OCD

Question 31

Evaluate genetic explanations of OCD

Answer 31

For
Billet et al - meta analysis of twins 
If MZ had OCD, 68% chance of twin having it
DZ - 31%
This suggest genetics do play a role

Against
Concordance rate doesn’t prove causal relationship
No test found 100% concordance rate therefore there must be other factors

Question 32

Explain the neural explanations of OCD

Answer 32

Abnormal levels of neurotransmitters have been found in OCD patients

Dopamine levels high for OCD patients
Serotonin levels low for OCD patients

Question 33

Evaluate neural explanations of OCD

Answer 33

For
Max et al found increased rate of OCD after brain damage to basal ganglia (involved in regulation/production of dopamine)

Against
There wasn’t a 100% concordance rate therefore there must be other factors

Question 34

Explain the biological approach to treating OCD (SSRIs)

Answer 34

SSRI increase the levels of serotonin - they block the re-uptake of serotonin from the synaptic cleft, leaving more available for the next neuron

Question 35

Explain the biological approach to treating OCD (tricyclics)

Answer 35

It works by blocking the transporter mechanism that’s reabsorbs serotonin & noradrenaline - more of these neurotransmitters are left in the synapse, therefore prolonging their activity & easing their transmission at next impulse

They have greater side effects than SSRI so are used if SSRI is not effective

Question 36

Explain the biological approach to treating OCD (anti-anxiety drugs)

Answer 36

Benzodiazepines are used to reduce anxiety

They slow down activity of CNS by enhancing activity of neurotransmitter GABA

When released GABA has general quieting down effects on neurons

Question 37

Evaluate the biological approach as a treatment for OCD

Answer 37

For
Drug therapies require less time a little effort (compared to therapies)
They are also cheaper compared to psychological treatments

Against
There are side effects - Soomra et al found SSRI side effects (nausea, headaches, insomnia)