Approaches In Psychology Flashcards
What is introspection?
The process by which a person gains knowledge about their mental & emotional state as a result of observation of their own conscious thoughts
What are the problems with introspection? (Ev)
It doesn’t explain how the mind works, it relies on people explaining their feelings (not objective)
It doesn’t provide reliable data because people’s accounts/experiences can’t be confirmed
What is reductionism?
The idea that things can be reduced to simple cause & effect processes
Define behaviourist (behaviourist approach)
People who believe human behaviour can be explained in terms of conditioning, without need to consider thoughts or feelings
Define classical conditioning
When a NS is consistently paired with an UCS so it eventually takes on the properties of the stimulus & is able to produce a CR
What other features are important in classical conditioning?
Timing - NS cannot be used to predict UCS if time frame between them is too great
Extinction - the CR does not become permanently established as a response
Spontaneous recovery - following extinction if CS & UCS are presented together, the link between them is made much more quickly
Stimulus generalisation - once an animal has been conditioned, they will also respond to a similar CS
Evaluate classical conditioning (behaviourist approach)
Useful applications - used in development of treatment of phobias (SD) counter conditioning
Too simple - ignores cognitive factors such as thoughts/feelings influencing behaviour
Define operant conditioning
Learning through reinforcement or punishment. If behaviour is followed by a desirable consequence then it is more likely to be repeated
What are the types of reinforcement?
Positive: occurs when behaviour produces a response that is satisfying/pleasant
Negative: they remove something unpleasant in response to a behaviour
Define punishment
Involves the application of an unpleasant consequence with result that behaviour is less likely to be repeated
Evaluate operant conditioning (behaviourist approach)
Heavy reliance on experimental method - used controlled observations meaning reduced extraneous variable (easier to establish causal relationships)
Used non human animals - reliance on rats tell us little about human behaviours because findings aren’t generalisable
Define SLT
Learning through observing others & imitating behaviours that are rewarded
What is meant by modelling?
A form of learning where an individual observes another individual perform a behaviour
Individuals that perform role are models
What is meant by imitation
The action of using someone as a model & copying their behaviour
What is meant by identification?
An individual adopts attitude or behaviour because they want to be associated with a certain person/group
It refers to the extent to which an individual relates to a model
In order to identify, the observer must feel they are similar enough to experience the same outcomes
Define vicarious reinforcement
Learning that isn’t a result of direct reinforcement, but through observing someone else being reinforced of that behaviour
What are the meditations processes?
Attention - refers to amount of attention we give to observed behaviour
Retention - how well we remember the behaviour we are observing
Reproduction - can we actually perform observed behaviour
Motivation - are he results rewarding?
Define the cognitive approach
Cognitive approach looks at internal workings of the mind & explains behaviour through cognitive processes
Define schema
A cognitive framework that helps to organise and interpret data in the brain
They help individuals make sense of new info
What are the different types of schema?
Role schema: ideas of behaviours expected of a certain role
Event schema: ideas about what should happen In a certain situation
Self schema: info about your own beliefs/values - affect how you act
What are the problems with schema?
It can prevent the learning of new information because stereotypes have formed
What are the differences between humans & computers
Humans have emotional/motivational factors influencing them
Humans have unlimited, unreliable memory
Computers have limited, reliable memory
Evaluate the the cognitive approach
Useful applications - has been used to explain how dysfunctional behaviour is because of faulty cognitions - this has lead to successful treatment of OCD by using cognitive based therapy
It fails to take into account individual differences & assumes we all process information in the same way
It ignores emotional/motivational factors - tells us how cognitive processes take place but not why
Define the biological approach
Views humans as biological organisms & so provides biological explanations for all aspects of psychological functioning
What are genes and how do they influence behaviour?
Genes: a part of the chromosome of an organism carries information in the form of DNA
Genes carry instructions for a particular characteristics
How characteristics develop depend on interaction of one gene with another & environment
Define genotype & phenotype
Genotype: the genetic make up of an organism (a collection of genetic material)
Phenotype: the observational/physical characteristics of an individual. (Consequence of genotype & interaction with the environment)
How do neurons & the nervous System influence behaviour?
CNS: brain & spinal cord
PNS: comprised of autonomic & somatic NS
NS: carries messages from one part of body to another in the form of neurons
Many aspects such as breathing, eating & sexual behaviour are controlled by neurons
How does the brain influence behaviour?
Neurotransmitters that trigger nerve impulses in the receiving neuron are excitatory
Neurotransmitters that inhibit nerve impulses in order to calm the brain are inhibitory
Dopamine - excitatory & associated with motivation
Serotonin - inhibitory & adequate amounts are used to maintain stable mood
What are hormones & how do they influence behaviour?
Hormones are chemicals that are produced by the endocrine gland
In response to a signal from the brain they are related into bloodstream
They travel to target cells & bind to receptor sites cause a physiological reaction
Evaluate the biological approach
It is reductionist - believe complex human behaviour can be simplified down to its smallest component parts - critics argue to understand behaviour we need to take into account cognitive, emotional & cultural factors
Biological approach uses the scientific method - take place in highly controlled environments therefore increasing validity
Evaluate SLT
Useful applications - Akers (1998) suggests probability of committing a crime increases when we witness a model commit
There is a problem determining causality - when a person repeats behaviour it may be due to other factors (dispositional)
Define psychodynamic
Refers to any theory that emphasises change & development in an individual. Particularly theories where ‘drive’ is a central concept in development
Define unconscious
Unconscious is part of the human mind that contains repressed ideas & memories, as well as primrose desires & impulses
Freud believes this part of mind was inaccessible to conscious thought
What are Freud’s 3 structures of personality?
The id: operates solely in the unconscious.
Contains the libido (biological energy created by reproductive instincts)
Operates according to pleasure principle (instant gratification)
The ego: mediates between impulsive demands of the id & reality of external world.
May delay gratifying needs until more appropriate time
The superego: divided into conscience & ego ideal.
Determined which behaviours are permissible & causes feelings of guilt when rules are broken.
Ego ideal is what a person strives towards
Define defence mechanism
Unconscious strategies that protect our conscious mind from anxiety.
They involve distortion of reality in some way so we are able to better cope with a situation
Give examples of defence mechanisms
Repression: unconscious blocking of unacceptable thoughts & impulses
Have no recollection but will continue to influence behaviour
Denial: refusal to accept reality so avoid having to feel with painful feelings that may be associated with event
Person acts as though event has not happened
Displacement: involves redirecting thoughts/feelings in a situation where person feels unable to express them to person they should be able to
‘Takes it out’ on someone else
What are the psychosexual stages?
Oral (0-2yrs) mouth is focal point of sensation a way in which infant expresses early sexual energy
Anal (2-3yrs) beginnings of ego development.
Child becomes aware of demands of reality & need to conform to demands of others
Phallic (3-6yrs) sexual energy now focussed on genitals. Oedipus complex - male wants mother & to get rid of father. Boys experience castration anxiety
Latent (6-12yrs) child develops mastery of world around them. Issues of previous stage are repressed
Genital (12+) fixing of sexual energy in genitals. Directed towards sexual intercourse
Evaluate the psychodynamic approach
Psychoanalysis is gender biased - Freud seemed content to remain ignorant on female sexuality & how it may differ from males
Define humanistic
Refers to the belief that human beings are born with the desire to grow, create & love, & to have power to direct their own lives
Define free will
The ability to act at ones own discretion I.e. To choose how to behave without being influenced by external forces
What is the hierarchy of needs and what are the elements of it?
It is the motivational theory proposed by Maslow (1943)
Self actualisation: reaching ones full potential
Esteem: self esteem, confidence, achievement, respect by others
Love/belonging: friendship, family, sexual intimacy
Safety: security of body/employment/resources
Physiological: food, sleep, homeostasis
What is meant by focus on the self?
The self is how we perceive ourselves as a person
Rogers (1951) claimed we have 2 basic needs:
Positive regard from others & feelings of self worth
The closer our self concept & ideal self, the happier we are
What is congruence?
If there is a similarity between a persons ideal self & self image then a state of congruence exists (a difference represents a state of incongruence)
The close they are the greater the congruence
What are conditions of worth?
These are conditions that an individual perceives significant others out upon them
Conditions which they believe to have to be in place to gain acceptance from others so they can see themselves positively
Evaluate the humanistic approach
It is unrealistic- it represents an overly idealised & unrealistic view of human nature - we are not all as inherently grown oriented as the theory suggests
Cultural differences - self actualisation in non western culture is seen as contributions to community (social) as opposed to individual development
