Psychopathology Flashcards
Definitions of abnormality - What is deviation from social norms?
- behaviour that is seen as a deviation from social norms is considered to be abnormal as a social deviant
Definitions of abnormality - What is a norm?
- standards of acceptable behaviour; expectations of behaviour
- set by a social group and carried out by one
- behaviour is considered to be abnormal if society or the majority considers it unacceptable and undesirable
- norms vary across cultures, situations, ages and gender.
Definitions of abnormality - example of social norm changes
acceptable to not acceptable
- drinking and driving
- smoking indoors
not acceptable to acceptable
- homosexuality
- having kids out of wedlock
Definitions of abnormality - Evaluation of deviation from social norms.
strength; separates undesirable and desirable behaviours. For example, the definition focuses on deviant behaviours which often cause issues for others or prevent society’s functioning effectively. This is a contrast to stat infrequency which doesn’t take into account that some rare behaviours, like a high IQ are desirable TMB, social norms are important to keep societies in order, and helps individuals function appropriately in society. This definition provides a practical way to identify problematic and damaging behaviours in society.
limitation; the definition is too vague. For example, singing and shouting in the street randomly would be considered abnormal yet doing this at a party or concert would not. TMB, whether the behaviours are considered abnormal or not depends on the context and degree. Social norms also change over time. This is a limitation as it is difficult to objectively establish what behaviours are considered abnormal as they are subjective to the env. Thus limiting deviation from social norms as a definition of abnormality.
limitation; it is culturally relative. For example, the DSM is the main tool to diagnose mental illness, this classification system is primarily based on Western norms and yet is applied to all cultures. TMB, whether behaviours are considered abnormal or not depends on the social norms of the culture. This means that criteria for mental health cannot be universally applied, and should be specific to each culture. Thus limiting DFSM as a way of defining abnormality.
limitation; can have dangerous social consequences. Szasz argued that this definition is just a way to exert social control by excluding or labelling non-conformists’ as abnormal. TMB, social norms are not a set of criteria which is universally accepted. This means the way that abnormality is defined can change over time and this could be used to control specific social behaviours which are deemed unacceptable by governments (and other higher powers). Thus limiting deviation from social norms as a definition of abnormality.
Definitions of abnormality - What is statistical infrequency?
- mean, median and mode
- Stat value that shows you what is most common and so we can then see what is not common (abnormal, for example; having a baby above 40 is not as common having a baby at 30)
Definitions of abnormality - Evaluation of statistical infrequency?
strength (counter); provides an objective measure of abnormality. for example, based off of a normal distribution curve, you could argue that only behaviours which occur in less than 5% of the population should be considered abnormal. TMB, it makes it possible to establish a clear-cut off point to determine which behaviours should be considered abnormal, which makes diagnosis more reliable. HOWEVER, this may not be the most effective approach to diagnosing mental health because one of the key criteria for diagnosis depends on the impact level of distress a behaviour has on the person. (low IQ may still be functioning well and without distress within their capabilities). TMB, using this definition could lead to unhelpful labelling of people who don’t need ‘treatment’, and further increase the stigmatisation and discrimination of certain traits and behaviours. Thus, although the definition of provides an objective measure of abnormality, it may not be completely suitable as it is important to take each individual as a whole into account when making a diagnosis.
limitation; some abnormal behaviours are desirable, for example, very few people have IQ over 150 but this abnormal labelling is desirable and the opposite - depression is common but undesirable, therefore statistical infrequency struggles to distinguish between desirable and non desirable behaviours . thus limiting the usefulness of statistical infrequency as an explanation for definitions of abnormality.
limitation; different cultures have differences in statistically rare behaviours. For example, in most Western and Eurocentric cultures, hearing voices would be considered rare. However, in many other cultures, this is a quite a common and desirable trait. TMB, it has practical implications for diagnosis and treatment, as it highlights the need for diagnostic tools to be culturally relative rather than universally applied. Thus limiting the effectiveness of statistical infrequency as a definition of abnormality if cultural differences are not taken into account.
Definitions of abnormality - What is deviation from ideal mental health?
- behaviours which are seen as abnormal and deviating (not following) with ideal, positive mental heath.
Definitions of abnormality - What is Jahoda’s (1958) characteristics of ideal mental health? (deviation from ideal mental health)
self-attitude; high self esteem and strong sense of identity
personal growth & self-actualisation; the extent to which a person develops to their full capabilities
integration; being able to cope with stressful situations
autonomy; being independent & self regulating
having an accurate perception of reality
master of the environment; ability to love, function at work & interpersonal relationships, adjust to new situations & solve problems
Definitions of abnormality - Evaluation of deviation from ideal mental health.
strength; deviation of ideal mental health is a positive definition. Jahoda’s criteria is a positive description of ideal mental health (what it should look like). TMB, provides a better outlook on mental health as it shows us how to be healthy. this is a strength as it offers practical pointers on how to achieve a positive mental health and it can hep remove some of the stigma associated with mental health. Thus supporting DFIMH as a definition of abnormality.
limitation; not realistic, for example Jahoda’s criteria of having high self-esteem is going to be achieved by most people at some times, but not all of the time. The criteria suggests that you must meet all 6 requirements at all times to be deemed mentally healthy. TMB, as this is an unrealistic target as mental health differs day to day and can depends on various factors, meaning that it is very unlikely for a person to meet all 6 requirements at all times. This will have a negative impact if the criteria is sued for diagnosis as most people will end up being labelled as abnormal & deviating.
limitation; it treats mental health in the same way as physical health. Jahoda’s criteria can help us diagnosis poor mental health in the same way that doctors use symptoms to diagnose poor physical health. TMB, mental health is much more complex than physical health and often have multiple causes which aren’t always identifiable. Thus limiting the effectiveness of Jahoda’s criteria and DFIMH as a definition of abnormality.
limitation; lacks cultural relativism, Jahoda’s criteria is not applicable to all cultures. For example, the criteria of autonomy (being self regulated and independent) may not be as common in some cultures. For example, villages in India tend to rely on the community a lot more than a Western culture would, as they share responsibilities in bringing up a child. TMB, this definition is not as applicable to non-Western cultures. This means that if we apply this definitions universally, then there will be a lot more behaviour labelled as abnormal, when they are not. Thus limiting DFIMH as a definition of abnormality.
Definitions of abnormality - What is failure to function adequately and give example.
- abnormality can be judged in terms of not being able to cope with everyday living
- functioning refers to just going about say to day life (eg. eating regularly, washing clothes and getting up for work)
- not functioning adequately causes distress for the individual and potentially others
example-
- DSM includes assessment of ability to function called WHODAS. Considers six areas; understanding and communicating, getting around, self-care, getting along with people, life activities and participation in society
- individuals rate each item from 1-5, given score out of 180. Includes quantitative measure of functioning.
Definitions of abnormality - Evaluation of failure to function adequately.
limitation; the definition is subjective. For example, the criteria of observer discomfort suggests that for behaviour to be considered abnormal, it requires someone else to judge it as such or feel uncomfortable with it. TMB, some people may report being in distress but may not meet the medical threshold for diagnosis and therefore not receive the help that they need. Conversely, some who may have been diagnosed may feel as though there is nothing wrong with them so will not engage with treatment. limiting effectiveness.
limitation; it doesn’t apply to all dysfunctional behaviours. for example, a really high IQ (over 150) may be deemed as abnormal but actually benefit the individual but yet may be suffering mentally but is masked by the ‘benefits’ of the IQ. TMB, applying this definition means that only some people with dysfunctional and unhealthy behaviours may not get the help they need as they appear to be functioning adequately. Thus limiting usefulness.
limitation; doesn’t take into account cultural differences. For example, Jahoda’s criteria of self-actualisation differs from culture to culture as ‘people reaching their full capabilities’ means different things to different people. For example, in China, a study found that people reach self-actualisation through benefitting the community where as in a more Western culture, self-actualisation is achieved through personal goals. TMB, this definition is not as applicable to non-Western cultures. This means that if we apply these definitions of what it is to function adequately universally, then there will be a lot more behaviour labelled as abnormal, when they are not. Thus limiting FFA as a definition of abnormality.
MENTAL DISORDERS; What is a phobia?
Diagnostic manual, DSM & ICD
- phobias are instances of irrational fears that produce a conscious avoidance of the feared object or situation
- Agoraphobia (fear of being trapped in public place where escape is difficult)
- Social phobia (anxiety related to social situations, i.e group of people)
- Specific phobias (fear about specific objects i.e spider/snake. Or situations i.e heights)
MENTAL DISORDERS; Name emotional characteristics for a phobia.
- excessive and unreasonable fear and anxiety
- feelings cued by the presence of anticipation of the object or situation (these are out of proportion to the actual danger)
- will be terrified when there is nothing to be scared about
MENTAL DISORDERS; Name behavioural characteristics for a phobia.
- avoidance of the stimulus and panic when the feared object is encountered
-freeze or faint (fight or flight) - avoidance interferes significantly with everyday life (routine, occupation, relationships etc.)
- eg. person not going back to work as they once saw a spider there (this distinguishes phobias from normal everyday fears that do not interfere with everyday life).
MENTAL DISORDERS; Name cognitive characteristics for a phobia.
- irrational nature of persons thinking and resistance to rational arguments
- becoming fixated on the object of fear and irrational thinking towards the object or situation
- person recognises fear is excessive/unreasonable
- (helps distinguish between schiz & phobias as schiz patients do not recognise behaviour)
MENTAL DISORDERS; What is depression?
- depression is a classified mood disorder
- DSM-V distinguishes between major depressive disorder and persistent depressive disorder which is long term & reoccurring
MENTAL DISORDERS; Name emotional characteristics for depression.
- formal diagnosis requires at least 5 symptoms
- sadness, loss of interest and pleasure in normal activities
- feelings of emptiness, worthlessness, hopelessness & low self-esteem
- despair and lack of control
- anger directed towards others/turned inwards on the self
MENTAL DISORDERS; Name behavioural characteristics for depression.
- reduction in energy and constantly feeling tired
- disturbed sleep pattern and changes in appetite
- increasingly agitated and restless
MENTAL DISORDERS; Name cognitive characteristics for depression.
- diminished ability to concentrate
- negative thoughts, negative self-concept, negative view of the world and expect things to turn out badly
- negative thoughts are irrational
- believing you will do bad at a test so reduce effort and fail the test (self-fulfilling)
MENTAL DISORDERS; What is OCD?
- also classified as an anxiety disorder
- beginning in young adulthood and has two main components; obsessions and compulsions
- repetitive behaviours
MENTAL DISORDERS; Name emotional characteristics for OCD.
- obsessions and compulsions are a source of considerable anxiety and distress
- sufferers are aware their behaviours are excessive - this causes embarrassment and shame
- common obsessions concern germs which give rise to feelings of disgust
MENTAL DISORDERS; Name behavioural characteristics for OCD.
- compulsive behaviours performed to reduce anxiety created by obsessions
- there repetitive & unconcealed (eg. hand washing) and can be mental acts (eg. praying)
- people feel they must perform these acts or something dreadful may happen (creates anxiety)
- some may only get compulsions with no obsessions
- behaviours are not connected in a realistic way with what they are designed to neutralise/prevent & are clearly excessive
MENTAL DISORDERS; Name cognitive characteristics for OCD.
- obsessions are recurrent, intrusive thoughts/impulses that are perceived as inappropriate or forbidden
- frightening/embarrassing so then individual doesn’t want to share them with others
- common obsessions; ideas (germs are everywhere), doubts (worrying something important has been overlooked), impulses (shouting swear words), or images (fleeting sexual images).
- uncontrollable and so creates anxiety, recognise that these are a product of their own mind
- at some point recognises that they are excessive/unreasonable
PHOBIAS; Behavioural approach to explaining phobias - the two process model
MOWRER (1947)
- two process model to explain how phobias are learned
- first stage is classical conditioning and then operant conditioning
- both are needed to explain why phobias begin and then continue
PHOBIAS; Behavioural approach to explaining phobias - Little Albert
WATSON & RAYNER (1920)
- demonstrated emotional responses can be learned through classical conditioning
- 11 month old baby - Little Albert
white rat (NS) = no response
loud noise (UCS) = fear response (UCR) crying
loud noise (UCS) + rat (NS) = fear response (UCR) crying
white rat (CS) = fear response (CR) crying
PHOBIAS; Behavioural approach to explaining phobias - Classical conditioning, initiation
- phobias are acquired through association (Little Albert)
- Little Alberts phobia generalised to other furry things (ie. Santa Claus beard, a fur coat & non-white rabbit)
PHOBIAS; Behavioural approach to explaining phobias - Operant conditioning
- the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated is increased if the outcome is rewarding
- in phobias the case of avoiding/escaping the phobic stimulus reduces fear and is thus reinforcing
- this is negative reinforcing (escaping from unpleasant situation).
PHOBIAS; Behacoural approach to explaining phobias - Social Learning
- SLT is NOT part of the two process model but is a neo-behaviourist explanation
Example; seeing a parent respond to a spider with extreme fear may lead to the child acquiring a similar behaviour as behaviour appears rewarding i.e fearful person gets attention.
PHOBIAS; Behavioural approach to explaining phobias - Evaluation
strength; there is research support for the social learning theory explanation. Bandura & Rosenthal (1966) a model acted as if he was in pain every time a buzzer sounded. Later on those ppts who had observed this showed an emotional reaction to the buzzer, demonstrating an acquired fear response. TMB, modelling the behaviour of others can lead to the acquisition of phobias. Thus strengthening the behavioural approach to explaining phobias.
limitation; it is an incomplete explanation. Reattach, has found that not everyone bitten by a dog develops a phobia. Di Nardo (1988) said this can be explained by the diathesis stress model. This proposes that we inherit a genetic vulnerability for developing mental disorders, however a disorder will only manifest itself when triggered by a stressor (real life situation). TMB, a dog bite would only lead to a phobia if there was a genetic vulnerability for it, which the behaviourist approach does not take into account when explaining phobias. Thus limiting the behaviourist approach as an explanation for phobias.
limitation; it ignores cognitive factors. For example, the cognitive approach proposes that phobias may develop as a consequence of irrational thinking. For example, a person in a lift may think ‘I could be trapped in here and suffocate’. This causes anxiety and triggers a phobia. TMB, this suggests that the cognitive approach may be a better explanation for phobias compared to the behaviourist approach as it is more valuable as it leads to the treatment of CBTp.
limitation; cannot explain all phobias due to biological preparedness. Seligman (1970), argued that humans/animals are genetically programmed to make an association between a threatening stimuli and fear. These are known as ancient fears, things that would’ve been dangerous for our ancestors (snakes, heights etc.) TMB, it explains why people are much less likely to develop fears of modern objects like cars which are more of a threat than spiders, as these were not a threat in our evolutionary past. This highlights that the behaviourist approach cannot explain all phobias through learning, thus limiting it as an explanation of phobias
