Gender

Question 1

Definition of sex

Answer 1

• biological characteristics - male (XY) & female (XX). These chromosomal patterns determine which reproductive organs you are born with

Question 2

Definition of gender

Answer 2

• social construct of how someone/society define what it means to be a man or woman we usually categorise traits and behaviours as either masculine or feminine .
• children will socialised into a gender and this will eventually become their gender identity

Question 3

Definition of androgyny

Answer 3

Andro - male
Gyny - female

• combination of female and male characteristics

Question 4

Definition of transgender

Answer 4

• individual whose gender identity differs from biological sex, can lead to gender dysphoria

Question 5

What are sex role stereotypes?

Answer 5

• based on societal expectations which are reinforced from birth (treat male and female children differently based on biological sex)
• links to behaviour, both implicit and explicit - we are socialised into our gender role from birth

Question 6

Androgyny - BEM, (1974)

Answer 6

• masculinity and femineity are independent traits
• they are not inevitably linked to biological sex
• a person can score high or low on either or both regardless of sex

Question 7

Androgyny- BEM, (1974) - STUDY

Answer 7

• devised an inventory
• BSRI = Bem’s sex role inventory
• first systematic attempt to measure androgyny using a rating scale of 60 traits (20 male 20 female 20 neutral- added as distractors) to produce scores across 2 dimensions = Masculinity-Femineity & Androgynous-Undifferentiated
• inventory developed by asking 100 American Undergrad’s what they thought were desirable personality traits of men and women
• fourth category of undifferentiated (low score for both m and f) after criticism which pointed out there was a type of androgyny where a person was neither masculine or feminine

Question 8

Evaluation of sex, gender and stereotypes.

Answer 8

strength; there is a positive correlation between androgynous and psychological health. Prakash found that females with a higher fem score had higher depression rates compared to those with a higher androgynous level. TMB, it supports that androgyny has a pscyho-protective effect, as those with masculine and feminine traits were better off in terms of their mental health. Thus supporting Bem’s view that androgyny enables people to be psychologically healthier

strength; has research support that sex role stereotypes are assigned to children. Smith & Lloyd videotaped mothers with babies dressed and named as either a boy or a girl. They found that the mothers offered different toys based on the perceived sex, in line with gender expectations. TMB, suggests that parental behaviour could impact learning sex-role stereotypes as babies are treated differently based on their assumed biological sex, leads to children being socialised into their gender. Thus supporting that society plays a role in development of babies gender.

strength; BSRI has high reliability. Evidence comes from Bem who found the BSRI has a high test-retest reliability, with a correlation range from 0.76-0.94. TMB, shows that ptp’s who take the test give consistent responses over a period of time. Shows BSRI is a reliable way to measure gender, increasing the validity of the tool. Strengthening BSRI.

limitation; BSRI lacks temporal validity. Hoffman asked ptp’s to rate the items on the BSRI as masculine or feminine, found that only 2 terms were still endorsed as masc or fem. TMB, BSRI characteristics were selected in the 1970’s and people’s attitudes have changed since then, therefore it may no longer be relevant in today’s society. Limiting the use of BSRI to measure androgyny.

Question 9

role of chromosomes and hormones in sex & gender- intersex conditions (AIS etc.)

Answer 9

AIS- androgen insensitivity syndrome, most common when XY does not respond to testosterone. Male genitalia does not fully develop

CAIS- complete AIS in individuals will usually be present at birth as female/male genitalia hasn’t developed

PAIS- partial AIS individuals will be born with ambiguous genitalia

CAH- congenital insensitivity hyperplasia can affect both genders. High testosterone in gestation. Females born with male looking genitalia.

Question 10

Role of testosterone

Answer 10

• development of male internal & external characteristics (penis)
• some XY (male) individuals do not respond to testosterone, causes them to not develop male genitalia, labels as a female at birth

Question 11

Role of oestrogen

Answer 11

• becomes most relevant in puberty for breast development and menstrual cycle

Question 12

Role of oxytocin

Answer 12

• known as the ‘love’ hormone
• makes you want to bond to another person
• ## woman produce more oxytocin after having a baby, helps with breast feeding and forming a bond

Question 13

Chromosomal atypical patterns (two main syndromes)

Answer 13

• differences caused by atypical patterns

KLINEFELTERS SYNDROME
- males born with an extra X chromosome (XXY)

TURNERS SYNDROME
- females born with missing X chromosome (X)

Question 14

Symptoms of Klinefelter’s syndrome.

Answer 14

• male boobs
• less muscular in body, wider hips, more feminine
• tall
• struggle with fertility
• very visual and creative
• hard to process & retain info
• struggle to manage stress
• smaller genitalia
• struggle with left side- language (brain)
• socially awkward

Question 15

Symptoms of Turner’s syndrome.

Answer 15

• webbed neck
• short
• issues with fertility
• higher reading ability
• obsessive but caring
• social immaturity - hard to fit in
• cardiovascular issues
• delayed puberty
• poor right hem area- face recog, visual & spatial

Question 16

Evaluation for role of chromosomes and hormones in sex and gender

Answer 16

strength; research support for role of hormones. Researcher found that when injected with male or female hormones the individual demonstrated more male or female behaviours. TMB, highlights that hormones play a key role in determining behaviour and supports usefulness for giving hormone shots.

strength; real life research (case study)for biological determinism. David Reimer underwent circumcision surgery, which left him without a penis and therefore was brought up as a girl. He suffered with mental health issues relating to his gender and when he found out the truth he committed suicide. TMB, highlights the strong pull of chromosomes and that socialisation itself is not enough to change ones gender.

limitation; Culture and social influences play an important role in gender development. For example, The Batista sisters - 4 sisters with external female genitalia yet in puberty large amounts of testosterone was produced causing male genitalia to show. They was XY genetically (male) but suffered from testosterone insensitivity, which they accepted with no problem. TMB, it shows the ease of transition from female to male which highlights the importance of culture, which may have been difficult in a Western culture.

Question 17

Cognitive explanations of gender - Kholberg’s theory of gender.

Answer 17

• focused on process of acquiring an understanding of gender
• based on Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, children’s understanding of the world, it’s properties and how they fit into it becomes more complex as they grow
• idea that cog development is an active contraction of ones world-need to interact with the env to discover, process and understand new things
• when kids find their gender identity they identify with the same people

Question 18

Cognitive explanations of gender - 3 stages of gender development.

Answer 18

GENDER LABELLING (1yr-3yrs)
- child recognises own gender
- start calling people these labels but do not understand what they mean or their permeance

GENDER STABILITY (3yrs-5yrs)
- children recognise that their own gender is permanent
- use visual/superficial cues to determine others gender
- believe gender can be changed based on physical appearance (male with long hair may be referred to as a female)

GENDER CONSTANCY (6yrs-7yrs)
- children understand gender is permanent
- need to have acquired the skill of conservation (realising that something may look different in situations but the gender remains the same)

Question 19

Evaluation of cognitive explanations of gender

Answer 19

strength; evidence to support Kholberg’s theory. Slaby & Frey, found children could not correctly answer questions like ‘when you grow up, will you be a mummy or daddy?’ until 3/4yrs old. TMB, supports gender development stages and at which age they occur. Gender stability does not happen until after 3 years old. Strengthening theory of gender development.

limitation; gender differences in gender development. Hutson found that it was easier to get girls to do masculine activities but hard to get boys to do girl ones. Can be explained through SLT as boy role models are more powerful and girls ones are more submissive. TMB, shows that girls gender development is different to that of boys based off different views in society and that social learning plats a key part in that process. Limiting Kholberg’s theory.

limitation; Kholberg’s ages within stages of gender development may need adjusting. Slaby & Frey found that gender constancy appears as young as 5 which contradicts Kholberg claims that children do not reach this stage until at least 6 years old. TMB, suggests that because children have more exposure to media they have more knowledge of gender. So while the evidence still supports the stages, the age bands may be younger than Kholberg proposed. Limiting Kholberg’s theory of gender development.

Question 20

Martin and Halverson (1981), Gender Schema theory.

Answer 20

• formed from a child’s experiences with gender from birth (adults, peers, society, etc.)
• these schemas include info about gender appropriate/ non-appropriate behaviour (clothing expectations, characteristics, personality traits, etc.)
• to form a personal identity we seek people that are similar to us (in-group)
• positive associations to in-group and negative to out-group (people whom don’t fit into our gender schema theory)

Question 21

Resilience to gender beliefs

Answer 21

• explains power of gender beliefs
• beliefs = children have strong gender attitudes as they ignore out-group info.
• they have profound effect on what is remembered and our perceptions of world around us (boy sees a man as a nurse which doesn’t fit in with GST and therefore will ignore this, not remember and does not alter previous schema)

Question 22

Peer relationships on gender development

Answer 22

• play leads to some identities being interested in something and avoid the opposite
• less fun to play with opposite sex and will be teased by others if they do, effects the likelihood of developing relationships with same and opposite sex peers

Question 23

Evaluation of gender schema theory

Answer 23

strength; research support for GST. Martin & Halverson presented nurses and firefighter role models to children. Found distorted memory of counter stereotypical pictures, e.g male nurses remembered as female and visa versa for firefighters. TMB, highlights that previously remembered schemas have an impact on new ones and distort a child’s memory. Emphasising the role of schemas on children’s gender development in order to fit with these schemas. Thus supporting GST as an explanation of gender development.

limitation (COUNTER TO PREV); There is research to challenge this. Hoffman found children with working mothers have less stereotypical views of gender roles. TMB, challenges gender resilience theory as this evidences that we do not ignore something based on our gender schemas but more our environment. This suggests that schemas are not actually fixed like how GST suggests. Thus limiting GST to explain gender development.

strength; research support. Brabard found that children remembered more items that were labelled as their gender. TMB, it evidences that children present an in-group bias meaning they are more likely to favour things that supports their identified group due to the process of filtering. Supports GST to explain gender development.

strength; GST more accurate than Kholberg’s theory. Researcher found that children use gender labels as early as 19 months. This provides more support for GST than Kholberg’s theory as Kholberg stated that gender labelling did not occur until at least 19 months. TMB, GST recognises that these processes and schemas are formed much earlier than this. Suggesting GST is more accurate than Kholberg, thus supporting GST as an explanation of gender development.

Question 24

Influence of the media on gender roles - men & women.

Answer 24

MEN
- directive (in charge)
- independent
- strong & in control
- aggressive but for the greater good

WOMEN
- passive (things happen to them)
- dependent and unambitious
- emotional
- flawless (physical perfection)
- sexually enticing

Question 25

Influence of the media on gender roles - Mcghee & Freugh (1980) study

Answer 25

• children who watched more than 25hrs per week of TV had more stereotypical views than who didn’t (especially boys)

Question 26

Influence of the media on gender roles- Vicarious reinforcement, media

Answer 26

• media provides an idea of outcomes of gender appropriate and non-appropriate behaviour
• gender appropriate behaviour seems to be rewarded (person on TV successful)
• success stories of people similar to us increase our self-efficacy (belief in what we can do - failures decrease self-efficacy)
• non gender-appropriate behaviour tends to be punished and outcast and unsuccessful

Question 27

Influence of the media on gender roles- Counter stereotypes, media

Answer 27

BOYREE (1975)
- stereotyping in children is reduced when they are shown non-conformity gender role models through the media
- media can have a positive effect - can be used to counter as it so powerful

Question 28

Evaluation of influences of media on gender roles

Answer 28

strength; research support. Williams - carried out a natural experiment of a community which had no access to TV or media prior to the 80’s. After a few weeks, researchers found that children exposed to TV displayed more stereotypical views and behaviours of gender than before. TMB it evidences the strong effects of TV exposure can have on gender roles. Thus supporting the influence of media on gender roles.

limitation; research that disagrees of countering stereotypes through media. Pingree found that pre-adolescent boys displayed stronger stereotypes after exposure to non-traditional stereotypes. TMB, highlights that gender schemas play a significant role, suggesting that these counter-stereotypes need to be displayed from birth in order for schemas not to be directly established stereotypically. This means that although the media is very influential, it is not as successful in being able to change things like counter-stereotypes suggests. Thus suggesting that media influences have a limited impact.

Question 29

Influences of culture on gender roles

Answer 29

• if gender is biological culture should not affect it

Question 30

Influences of culture on gender roles - Margret Mead (1935), culture (New Guinea tribes)

Answer 30

• stated that the terms masculine and feminine are completely unrelated to biological sex and are determined by our culture
• 2 year study of 3 different tribes in New Guinea
  ARAPESH- both sexes adopted a caring, expressive style associated with females in the west
  TANAMBULI- females= assertive and independent, gathered food & dealt with economic affairs, Males= nurturing, dependant and emotional, gossip with other men (distinctly male and female gender roles)
  BIWAT- both sexes violent and neither took a caring, nurturing role in childrearing. both sought power and position

*concluded that these differences highlighted impact of culture on gender
*gender roles- expectation, how they behave in society, accepted behaviour within a culture

Question 31

Evaluation of culture influences

Answer 31

strength; issues with cross-cultural research. Eagly argued that the physical differences between men and women allow them to perform certain tasks more efficiently. For example, a males increased strength justifies their more labouring roles, and women’s increased oxytocin means they’re more nurturing. TMB, explains gender differences in roles as a product of biological differences not just cultural stereotypes, limiting the influence of culture on gender roles.

limitation; criticisms of Mead’s research. Freeman criticised Mead’s findings as lacking validity as she misinterpreted the data, creating a false conclusion about gender roles and behaviour. TMB, it highlights the impact of observer bias, evidencing that it is difficult to observe behaviours from a culture that isn’t yours (lack of cultural relativism) as you may not fully understand it. The flaws in the evidence from the cross-cultural research limit the conclusions that can be drawn. Limiting the usefulness of Mead’s findings about the influence of culture in gender roles.

Question 32

Psychodynamic explanation of gender development - Freud

Answer 32

• Freud gender theory is part of his psychosexual stages theory
• personality development is driven by libido, children focus on different stages at different ages (body parts)
• gender development occurs during phallic stage (3-6)
• boys go through Oedipus complex and girls go through Electra complex

Identification- when child sees similarities between them and their same gender parent and imitates behaviour

Internalisation- process through which children take on their same gender parents attitudes, beliefs and behaviours as their own and becomes their superego

*child in single-parent home can’t resolve their conflict in phallic stage and leads to boys being homosexual as no parental figure to identify with

Question 33

Evaluation of psychodynamic explanation of gender.

Answer 33

strength; research support for Oedipus complex. For example, Freud carried out research on Little Hans and found he had a fear of horses and saw his dad as a horse so was scared he would find out his desire for his mum for himself and would castrate him. TMB, shows that Oedipus complex stage actually does occur in boys, thus supporting psychodynamic explanation of gender development.

limitation; However, it lacks predictive validity. Patterson reviewed research into single sex families and found no differences in gender development. TMB, shows that Freud’s theory doesn’t accurately predict any future behaviour such as homosexuality. Thus limiting the psychodynamic explanation of gender development.

limitation; Better explanation than Freud’s. Chadraw stated that close relationships between mothers & daughters is due to identification with the same se, boys are more independent as they are different from their mothers. TMB, it is a better explanation than Freud’s as it does not involve sexual desire for the opposite sex and it doesn’t include the outdated view that same sex parent families are abnormal. Thus limiting the explanation of the psychodynamic theory to explain gender development.

Question 34

SLT- gender development

Answer 34

• comes from behaviourist background and suggests that gender development is a result of learning

SLT
- children learn gender roles from influences in environment eg. parents, peers and media
- children observe behaviour and imitate it
- children look to their role models and imitate their behaviour
- behaviour acquired quickly and reinforced
- DIRECT REINFORCEMENT - rewarded/consequence given after gender appropriate behaviour (eg. son playing football - dad praises skills)
- INDIRECT REINFORCEMENT - watching what happens in situations around them and learn what is acceptable/ not based on what happens to the others (eg. friend seeing praised for not crying after falling over)

*reinforces gender appropriate behaviour

Question 35

SLT- identification and modelling

Answer 35

IDENTIFICATION- child internalises and adopts behaviour/attitudes shown by a role model of same gender (eg. girl sees another girl playing with a doll, gender-appropriate behaviour)- internalises the message that this is what girls do and now she wants to do it too

MODELLING, BANDURA (1977)
- ARRM principle (attention, retention, reproduction, motivation)
- if all components present, behaviour is likely to be imitated
- if role model is someone child admires (particularly same sex), the behaviour is even more likely to be imitated

Question 36

SLT- Research into gender roles

Answer 36

FAGOT (1955)
- 4 year olds displayed more gender stereotyping and used gender labels earlier in traditional families where father worked outside the home and mothers stayed home, than less traditional families.

QUERY (1998)
- questionnaires and naturalistic observations
- found that fathers interacted more with sons while mothers equally attended to sons and daughters - suggesting that fathers more than mothers reinforce gender roles

Question 37

Evaluation of SLT to explain gender development

Answer 37

strength; research support. Bandura found that in his experiment variations with the Bobo doll, children were more likely to repeat the aggressive behaviour displayed by the role models if they were the same sex as the child. TMB, supports the role of identification on imitation, highlighting that children fulfil their gender roles with imitation from same sex role models. Thus supporting SLT to explain gender development.

limitation; However, evidence suggests that children only imitate same-sex role models if it is not counter to stereotypes. Perry (1979), found that children imitate same-sex role models as expected, but if the role model did not appear to fit within the stereotype then the behaviour was not imitated. For example, a man in a dress. TMB, suggests that SLT does not take into account cognitive factors such as the GST meaning it limits gender development solely to to same-sex role models and imitation which is actually more complicated than SLT suggests. Thus limiting use of SLT to explain gender development.

strength; research support for reinforcement in gender development. Smith found that in the baby x experiment that all ptp’s responded to children’s perceived sex in line with gender stereotypes. TMB, highlights how children are conditioned into their roles based on perceived sex. Reinforcing gender stereotypes and behaviour. Thus supporting SLT in explaining gender development.

limitation; non-supporting research. Martin found that pre-school boys played with toys labelled ‘boy-toys’ even if they sae girls playing with them, however they didn’t play with toys labelled ‘girls-toys’ even if they saw boys playing with them as they didn’t model same-sex behaviour. TMB, suggests that direct instruction is more important than modelling, limiting the importance of role models and identification in gender development.

Question 38

Atypical gender development - gender dysphoria

Answer 38

gender dysphoria- strong feelings of identification with the opposite sex and an accompanying feeling of discomfort with their biologically assigned sex
- now diagnosable as a mental health disorder due to trauma and stress it causes

Question 39

Atypical gender development - biological explanations

Answer 39

Bio explanations - brain sex theory, cross wiring & phantom limb, genetic factors.

Question 40

Atypical gender development, bio exps - genetic factors

Answer 40

TIARRE (2009)
- found evidence of a transexual gene
- m to f have longer variation of androgen receptor gene
- causes reduced effect of testosterone - under emasculating

COOLIDGE (2002)
- twin studies supporting genetic components
- 62% variance when assessing twin pairs for gender dysphoria

Question 41

Atypical gender development, bio exps - brain sex theory

Answer 41

• assumption that male and female have differentiating brain structures (different sizes etc.)
• transgender individuals have the brain of the other gender
• BST - part of the brain in the thalamus, male BST 2x larger than female and 2x neurons

ZOUH (1995)
- male to female transgender have BST neurone in line with female numbers - visa versa

Question 42

Atypical gender development, bio exps - Cross wiring and phantom limb

Answer 42

• when people feel sensations when they have lost a limb
• evidence suggests that transexuals may suffer from phantom limb
• with regards to other genders genitals (women having penile sensation)

RAMACHANDRAN (2007)
- caused by cross-wiring in the brain - 2/3 female to male transexual ptps report penile sensations in their childhood.

Question 43

Atypical gender development - social explanations

Answer 43

• social constructionism, gender dysphoria as a mental illness, psychodynamic theory

Question 44

Atypical gender development , social exps - Social constructionism

Answer 44

• gender dysphoria a result of social constructions, this view rejects labelling of GD (labelling of genders actually cause GD)
• male societies (western) force people to be either male or female and behaviour accordingly to their gender expectations
• individuals that feel they don’t fit in will develop GD

MCCUNTOCK (2015)
- having 3rd gender and gender fluidity is commonly accepted in some non-western cultures ; supports gender being socially constructed

Question 45

Atypical gender development - social exps - GD as a mental illness (psychodynamic theory)

Answer 45

• GD a result of childhood trauma

COTTUS (1991)
- case study of a boy who developed GD
- mother had an abortion when he was 3 (crucial age of development) - she developed depression and was no longer able to look after him = actively rejecting (experience of trauma)
- trauma resulted in cross-gender fantasy to resolve separation anxiety
- causes him to internalise mum, rather than dad to keep mum close with him

• young girls identify as males to gain approval and acceptance
• GD bio males displayed an overly close relationship with their mothers

Question 46

Evaluation of atypical gender development

Answer 46

limitation; challenging evidence for brain sex theory. Ching, found that differences in BST volume does not develop until adulthood, whereas most transexuals report feelings of GD from early childhood. TMB, suggests that the differences found in BST could be the effect rather than the cause of transsexualism. These findings suggest that there is inconsistent evidence for the brain sex theory . Thus limiting biological explanations for atypical gender development.

strength; research support for cross-wiring. Ramachandran, found that 60% of non gender dysphoria men who have to have penile amputation experience phantom penis, but only 30% of gender dysphoria men experience it. Furthermore, 10% of female to male patients experience phantom breast after having them removed. TMB, suggests that transsexuals adults have differently wired brains due to their experiences with phantom limb. Thus providing support for biological explanations of atypical gender development after having sex organs removed.

strength; research support for social explanations of gender development. Zucker found that 64% of boys with GD were also diagnosed with separation anxiety disorders, compared to only 38% of boys who had gender concerns but whose symptoms were subclinical. TMB, provides support for GD as a mental illness as the trauma from separation anxiety results in cross gender fantasies in order to try and resolve the trauma. However, not all research supports these findings, for example, Cole studied people with GD and reported a range of psychiatric conditions. He found that these were no greater than what was found in the general population. This suggests that GD is generally unrelated to trauma or pathological families, thus limiting the social explanations of atypical gender development.