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Psychopathology Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the four different definitions of abnormality

A

Deviation form social Norms
Failure to function adequately
Deviation from ideal mental health
Statistical infrequency

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2
Q

Outline deviation from social Norms as a definition of abnormality

A

Standards of acceptable behaviour are set by social groups.
These can be explicit eg laws or implicit eg unwritten rules
Behaviour which deviates form these is considered abnormal

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3
Q

Evaluation points for deviation from social Norms

A

Limited by cultural relativism
Distinguishes between desirable and undesirable behaviour

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4
Q

PEEL- deviation from social norms
Limited by cultural relativism

A

Social Norms created within a culture
So limited by cultural relativism
Different cultures have different standards of acceptable behaviour for example hearing voices in a non western culture is considered a spiritual gift however considered a symptom of schizophrenia in a western culture
Therefore not appropriate to use definition outside specific culture

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5
Q

PEEL- deviation from social norms
Distinguishes between desirable and undesirable behaviour

A

Differentiates between desirable and undesirable behaviour within a culture
Definition categorises abnormality based on social norms within a culture
Unlike statistical infrequency which suggests if your behaviour is not typical or rare then you are abnormal even if the behaviour is considered desirable such as having a high iq
So definition appropriate as it allows us to understand behaviour in context

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6
Q

Outline failure to function adequately as a definition of abnormality

A

This involves the inability to cope with the demands of everyday life
Also looking at behaviours which can interfere with everyday life such as being unable to maintain basic standards of personal hygiene
Rosenhan and Seligman identified signs of a person failing to function adequately such as exhibiting irrational maladaptive behaviour

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7
Q

Evaluation points for failure to function adequately

A

Can be used as a measure for when people should seek professional help
Easy to label nonstandard lifestyles as abnormal

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8
Q

PEEL- failure to function adequately
Used as a measure for when to seek professional help

A

Definition states that it can be identified as the inability to cope with the demands of everyday life
Can be used as a measure for when people should seek professional help
According to mental health charity ‘mind’ 48% of people in the uk have experienced a mental health problem at some point in their life however most people press on despite failing to function adequately
If it is noticed that people are failing to function adequately then treatment and services a an be targeted towards those who need it the most
Use full as people can receive early intervention for their mental health

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9
Q

PEEL- failure to function adequately
Easy to label nonstandard lifestyle choices as abnormal

A

Easy to label nonstandard lifestyle choices as abnormal
Hard to say wether someone is failing to function adequately or wether they have just chosen to deviate from social norms
For example those who part take in high risk leisure activities or unusual spiritual practices could be considered unreasonably irrational and so abnormal
limits definition as unusual choices are at risk of being labelled abnormal therefore may lead to freedom of choice being restricted

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10
Q

Outline deviation from ideal mental health as a definition of abnormality

A

Jahoda says there are 6 criteria that define mental healthiness
Failure to meet one or more of the criteria would suggest an abnormality the more criteria they fail to meet the more abnormal the person would be deemed to be
Criteria include
Self attitudes- having high self esteem
Self actualisation- extent at which individual works to reach their full potential
Resistance to stress- being resistant to stress
Autonomy- being independent
Reality- having a accurate perception of reality
Mastery of environment- ability to love, functioning at work, solving problems and adjust to new situations

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11
Q

Evaluation points for deviation from ideal mental health

A

Takes a positive approach
Has a strict criteria

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12
Q

PEEL: deviation from ideal mental health
Positive approach

A

Takes a positive approach to defining abnormality
Focuses on characteristics which make up normal behaviour rather than characteristics which make a person abnormal like failure to function adequately does which identifies unpredictable behaviour as abnormal
Having a more positive approach to mental health disorders can reduce the stigma surrounding mental health so people suffering with it may become more likely to go and seek help and advice
So more appropriate definition

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13
Q

PEEL: deviation from ideal mental health
Strict criteria

A

It has strict criteria
People may not realistically be able to meet all six characteristics at one time
For example someone who has lost their job may not be able to cope with stressful situations and so would be classed as abnormal by this definition
Thus limiting as a definition

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14
Q

Outline statistical infrequency as a definition of abnormality

A

This definition suggests we must look at behaviour which is typical of the general population
So any behaviour which is rare is considered abnormal
Therefore on a distribution curve any behaviour which is two or more standard deviations away from the mean is statistically rare

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15
Q

Evaluation points for statistical infrequency

A

Practical applications
Does not differentiate between desirable and undesirable characteristics

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16
Q

PEEL: statistical infrequency
Practical applications

A

Practical applications
Statistical infrequency used in the real world in clinical practice as part of diagnosis and a way to assess the severity of an individual symptoms
Eg for diagnosis of intellectual disability disorders an IQ of below 70 (bottom 2%) and in Becks depression inventory statistical infrequency is used as an assessment where a score of 30+ is interpreted as an indication of severe depression
Important part of applied psychology

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17
Q

PEEL: statistical infrequency
Doesn’t distinguish between desirable and undesirable behaviours

A

Doesn’t differentiate between desirable and undesirable behaviour when defining abnormality
Eg high iq is desirable and so we would not class someone who has a high iq as abnormal however having a high iq is statistically rare and so would be considered abnormal according to this definition
Limits definition as it can not be used solely To make a diagnosis and treatment plan

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18
Q

Outline what it is meant by phobias

A

Phobias are when you experience extreme fear or anxiety activated by an object eg spider, place eg lifts or situation eg crowds
The fear of phobic stimulus is irrational and often out of proportion to any real danger

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19
Q

Outline the behavioural characteristic of phobias

A

Avoidance
Making a conscious effort to avoid coming in contact with phobic stimulus
Panic
Crying screaming or running away from the phobic stimulus or even freezing or fainting

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20
Q

Outline the cognitive characteristics of phobias

A

Persistent irrational beliefs
About the phobic stimulus eg the spider will harm you
Selective attention
Keeping attention in the phobic stimulus and finding it difficult to look away incase of danger

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21
Q

Outline emotional characteristics of phobias

A

Anxiety
Exposure to the phobic stimulus causes worry or distress
Fear
Exposure to the phobic stimulus causes terror
These are often excessive and unreasonable and out of proportion to any real danger

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22
Q

behavioural approach to explaining phobias
Intro

A

The behavioural approach suggests that phobias are a learnt behaviour
Mowrer argues phobias are initially learnt through classical conditioning then maintained through operant conditioning.
This is called the two process model

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23
Q

Outline the behavioural explanation to explaining phobias

A

Classical conditioning is where we learn to associate something we initially have no fear of, neutral stimulus, with something that already triggers the fear response, unconditioned stimulus. This response is triggered every time they see or think about the feared object.
Watson and Raynor conditioned nine month old little Albert to have a phobia of rats
At the the start little Albert was not afraid of rats, then every time he saw a rat a loud bang noise was made by banging an iron bar. The noise, unconditioned stimulus, caused the unconditioned response of fear. Albert learned to associate the rat, neutral stimulus, with the loud bang noise changing the rat into the conditioned stimulus which then triggered the conditioned response of fear when little Albert saw a rat.
Over time phobias acquired through classical conditioning tend to decline over time unless they are maintained through operant conditioning. Continuous avoidance of phobic stimulus negatively reinforces the phobia as they try to avoid the negative consequence of anxiety. This explains why phobias are long lasting

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24
Q

Evaluation points for behavioural explanation to explaining phobias

A

Environmental reductionism
Practical applications
Evolutionary explanation

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25
Q

PEEL: behavioural approach to explaining phobia
Environmental reductionism

A

Environmental reductionism
Reduces complex human behaviour of developing a phobia down to simple basic units of stimulus, response and association and maintaining phobias through reinforcements
Neglects a holistic approach which would take into account a persons culture and social context which could influence phobias
For example the phobia of displeasing others is relative to the culture of Japan which na collectivist culture whereas in an individualistic culture displeasing others is not as feared
Lacks internal validity as it does not allow us to understand behaviour in context

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26
Q

PEEL: behavioural explanation for phobia
Practical applications

A

Practical application
Suggests behaviours are learnt through classical conditioning and so can be unlearn through classical conditioning. This theory has been used to create treatment of systematic desensitisation
The patient is taught relaxation techniques and gradually exposed to their phobic stimulus so they learn to associate their phobic stimulus with relaxation rather than fear and therefore extinguishes the phobia .
This helps treat people in the real world
Explanation important part of applied psychology

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27
Q

PEEL: behavioural explanation to phobias
Evolutionary explanation

A

Alternative explanation the evolutionary explanation
Argues we are born with certain phobias as the feared stimulus would have been dangerous in our evolutionary past and so has been passed down through generations as a survival advantage.
Explain d why people fear snakes even if they have never encountered one before as they would have been dangerous in our evolutionary past
Therefore the behavioural explanation can not be the sole explanation of phobias

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28
Q

Aim of systematic desensitisation/ flooding
Same aim

A

To use classical conditioning to unlearn maladaptive behavioural responses to a phobic stimulus and to re associate phobic stimulus with relaxation

29
Q

Outline systematic desensitisation as a treatment for phobias

A

The patient is first taught relaxation techniques such as breathing exercises
The patient and therapist then work together to create a graded scale starting with stimuli that fears them the least eg picture of spider to stimuli that fears them the most eg holding a spider
The client is then gradually exposed to the phobic stimulus starting with the least fearing stimulus and only moving on to the next stage when they feel comfortable and relaxed.
During exposure client may feel anxiety the therapist would then encourage them to use relaxation techniques this is based on the reciprocal inhibition theory which suggests two opposite states of mind can not coexist so the client can not be both relaxed and anxious at the same time
The patient completes the treatment when they are desensitised and can move through the hierarchy without anxiety

30
Q

Evaluation points for systematic desensitisation

A

Requires motivation and commitment
Seen as more appropriate as patient given control over their treatment
It can be completed using virtual reality

31
Q

PEEL: systematic desensitisation
Requires motivation and commitment

A

Not appropriate because requires motivation and commitment
Patients must attend sessions over a period of time and be exposed to anxiety provoking situations which may make some patients stop therapy. If patients stop attending the therapy becomes ineffective and their anxieties will return
This is unlike drug therapy which require little motivation and commitment from patients as they only need to take a drug to reduce anxiety they feel.
Limits the appropriateness of systematic desensitisation

32
Q

PEEL: systematic desensitisation
Patients have high control over therapy

A

More appropriate for some patients as patients are given high control over their therapy
This is because they create their own hierarchy of anxiety with the therapist and are gradually exposed to the feared stimulus only moving onto the next stage when they feel relaxed
This is unlike flooding which can be quite traumatic for patients as they are immediately exposed to their most feared stimulus which can cause high anxiety levels.
Patients tend to opt for systematic desensitisation which is shown in low refusal rates and low drop out rates.
More appropriate treatment

33
Q

PEEL: systematic desensitisation
Can be done using virtual reality

A

It can be completed in a real world setting using virtual reality
Exposure through virtual reality can help avoid dangerous situations such as heights
Another reason to use virtual reality is that it is cost and time efficient because the psychologist and client do not need to leave consulting room
Therefore treatment can be used to treat a wide scope of phobias making it accessible to a wide variety of patients

34
Q

Outline flooding as a treatment for phobias

A

The patient is immediately exposed to the phobic stimulus and must stay in its presence
They will experience high levels of anxiety and panic and they are unable to avoid the stimulus
They remain exposed to stimulus till anxiety response is exhausted and starts to decrease
This lasts around 2-3 hours until patients anxiety eventually disappears
Known as extinction eventually patient learns exposure to stimulus is harmless

35
Q

Evaluation points for flooding

A

Highly cost effective
Unethical

36
Q

PEEL: flooding
Highly cost effective

A

Highly cost effective wwy to treat phobia
Bc therapy found to be effective and not expensive
Flooding works with little as one session due to the immediate exposure and extinction of phobia unlike sd which could take up to 10 sessions for the same result due to the gradual exposure to the phobic stimulus
Flooding a more cost effective alternative for the NHS and benefit the economy as more people would be treated for a phobia in less less time using fewer resources
More appropriate therapy to use in real world

37
Q

PEEL: flooding
Unethical

A

Unethical treatment
Patient experiences extreme anxiety as they are exposed to their most feared phobic stimulus for 2-3 hours
Even though full informed consent is received from patients sd may be viewed as more ethical as it gradually exposed the patient to stimulus at their own pace
Schumacher Et al found that therapists and patients rated flooding as significantly more stressful then sd
Moreover the traumatic nature of flooding means drip out rates are higher than sd
Reduces effectiveness and appropriateness

38
Q

Outline behavioural characteristics of depression

A

Change in activity levels
Lack of energy and withdrawal of activities once enjoyed
Disruption to sleep
Sleep may be reduced- insomnia
Sleep may be increased- hypersomnia

39
Q

Outline cognitive characteristics of depression

A

Poor levels of concentration
Inability to stick with a task which they would normal be able to do or make straightforward decisions about
Negative schema
Organisation of thought is mainly negative ignoring positive aspects of something

40
Q

Outline emotional characteristics of depression

A

Lowered mood
Often feeling sad empty or numb
Anger
Anger directed towards themselves or others

41
Q

Intro to cognitive approach to explaining depression

A

This approach explains how depression is caused by the way we think about information and our environment. Therefore is our thoughts and perceptions are irrational and negative then we are more vulnerable to depression

42
Q

Outline the cognitive approach to explaining depression

A

Becks negative triad
Consistent negative thoughts can make a person more vulnerable to depression.
He proposed negative trust which explains how negative thoughts about oneself ‘ I’m useless’ your future ‘I will never achieve anything’ and the world ‘ the world is unfair’ can make a person more vulnerable to depression
Ellis ABC model
Ellis’s model emphasises the role of irrational thoughts interfering with us being happy and free of pain.
Activating event which is an external event such as losing a job triggers irrational beliefs Ellis identifies a range of types of irrational beliefs which are triggered for example musterbation which is the belief we should always achieve perfection. When an activating event triggers these irrational beliefs it leads to emotional and behavioural consequences such as depression

43
Q

Evaluation points for the cognitive approach to explaining depression

A

Rts cohen et al
Practical application
Alternative explanation- biological explanation

44
Q

PEEL: cognitive explanation for depression
Cohen et al

A

Rts cohen et al
He tracked development of 473 adolescence regularly measuring their cognitive vulnerability- negative way of thinking that could lead to person become depression
Found those showing cognitive vulnerability developed depression later in life
Supports there’s an association between cognitive vulnerability such as negative thinking and increased vulnerability to depression as outlines in becks negative triad
Thus supporting it as an appropriate explanation of depression

45
Q

PEEL: cognitive explanation to explaining depression
Practical applications

A

Practical applications
Principle of the theory that depression is caused by negative irrational thought processing has lead to the treatment of cognitive behavioural therapy.
Found to be effective in treating depression by helping clients identify challenge and change negative irrational thoughts to rational positive ones via disputing.
Important part of applied psychology as it helps treat people in the real world

46
Q

PEEL: cognitive explanation to explaining depression
Alternative explanation- biological explanation

A

An alternative explanation is biological explanation
Suggests depression due to physical factors such as neurotransmitters
For example low levels of serotonin causing low mood rather than faulty though processing causing negative thoughts
So cognitive explanation not the only explanation that he pull be considered to explaining depression

47
Q

Outline the cognitive approach to treating depression

A

CBT is a method of treating mental health disorders using cognitive and behavioural techniques from a cognitive viewpoint.
Cognitive aim- The client and therapist work together to identify irrational thoughts that cause depression in the client. These negative irrational thoughts will then be challenged to turn them into more positive rational thoughts
Behavioural aim- cbt then works to bring in more effective behaviours in place
Empirical disputing- therapist uses this to challenge the clients negative irrational beliefs by asking for evidence of them ‘where is the proof that no one likes you’ the therapist may give the client homework and ask the client to keep a diary of all the times some one is mean to them, this tests the reality of their beliefs. The therapist will then use this to prove that their negative beliefs are false
Behavioural activation- used to challenge the clients behaviour such as encouraging the depressed individual to become more active. Therapist may encourage client to take part in activities they once enjoyed which will help improve the persons mood and reduce negative thoughts
Through the treatment the client will become more independent so they can use the strategies learnt in the real world and so gain control over their depressive thoughts

48
Q

Evaluation points of cognitive approach to treating depression

A

March(2007)
Requires Motivation and commitment
Focus on clients present and future rather than the past

49
Q

PEEL: cognitive treatment for depression
March (2007)

A

March (2007)
Studied adolescents with depression and found that 81% of their symptoms had significantly improved after CBT and 86% had improved if cbt was combined with antidepressants
Suggests challenging irrational negative thoughts can provide a reduction in depressive symptoms
Thus cbt popular choice of treatment for depression for the NHS

50
Q

PEEL: cognitive treatment for depression
Requires motivation and commitment

A

Requires motivation and commitment from patients
Have to attend session over a long period of time and complete homework’s for example keeping a diary and engaging in activities they once enjoyed
Issue bc individuals with depression often lack motivation
Thus reducing effectiveness of cbt as a treatment of depression

51
Q

PEEL: cognitive treatment for depression
Focuses on present and future rather than past

A

Focus on clients present or future rather than past
Some client may be aware of the link between their childhood and past experiences and their current depression and they may want to talk about it
They may find the present future focus frustrating and therefore reduces the effectiveness of cbt

52
Q

Outline the behavioural characteristics of ocd

A

Compulsions
External behaviours which are repeated to alleviate anxiety for example washing hands

Avoidance of situations that could trigger compulsions
For example person with a cleaning ritual may try avoiding germs by not shaking hands with people

53
Q

Outline the cognitive characteristics of ocd

A

Obsessions
Internal intrusive thoughts which are reoccurring and unpleasant causing anxiety eg worries of being contaminated by germs
Awareness
They are aware their thoughts and compulsions are irrational

54
Q

Outline the emotional characteristics of ocd

A

Anxiety and distress
Obsession is often unpleasant and frightening causing overwhelming anxiety

Ocd can also cause other negative emotions such as guilt and disgust

55
Q

Outline the biological explanation to explaining OCD

A

Argues that OCD is due to physical factors in the body
OCD tends to run in families, suggesting there is a genetic predisposition to OCD, which can be inherited
The genetic explanation argues the OCD is due to the inheritance of one or many maladaptive genes eg SERT gene
Explanation states that the closer the genetic link, the greater the risk, a person would inherit OCD shown in twin studies wear monozygotic (identical) twins have been found to have a concordance rate of 87%, compared to a concordance rate of 47% for dizygotic twins
Candidate genes can make an individual vulnerable to developing OCD these are called ’COMT’ and ‘SERT’ gene
The sert gene is involved in the transportation of serotonin if mutated reduces the serotonin activity levels, which is associated with an increase in anxiety and OCD symptoms

56
Q

Outline the neural approach to explaining OCD

A

Neurochemical exclamation
Suggest OCD is due to an imbalance of neurotransmitters, specifically low levels of serotonin activity
Serotonin is involved in maintaining a stable mood, a mutation in the SERT gene causes serotonin to be recycled, too quickly back into the presynaptic neuron before it can activate the post synaptic neuron
Low levels of serotonin activity can lead to anxiety. This can be seen with obsessions in OCD.

Neuroanatomy explanation
Siri suggests that OCD is due to a difference in shape and or functioning of specific brain areas, OCD is linked to the area of the brain known as the basil ganglia, which is responsible for Psycho motor functions. Hyper sensitivity of the basil ganglia may result in repetitive movements this could help explain why compulsions are experienced by people with OCD

57
Q

Evaluation points for the genetic explanation to explaining OCD

A

Biologically reductionist
Scientific methods
Practical applications

58
Q

PEEL: genetic explanation to explain OCD
Biologically reductionist

A

Biologically reductionist
Reduces complex human behaviour of OCD down to simple basic units of mutations within genes causing imbalance in neurotransmitter activity eg SERT
This neglect the holistic approach which would take into account our persons culture and social context could influence OCD
E.g. research has shown there is a higher prevalence of OCD in certain religious groups where regular cleansing before Prayer is a daily ritual.
Therefore, the biological explanation of OCD may lack validity as it does not allow us to understand the behaviour in context

59
Q

PEEL: genetic explanation to explaining OCD
Scientific methods

A

Scientific methods
Theory is based on objective and empirical techniques, such as genemapping studies, which are used to identify specific genes (SERT) which influence the activity of neurotransmitters, which can cause OCD.
Increases of Real internal validity does raising Psychology scientific status

60
Q

PEEL: genetic explanation to explaining OCD
Practical applications

A

Practical applications
The principles of the theory that OCD is due to a mutation in the SERT gene and low serotonin activity levels has led to the development of drug treatments
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (ssri) increased amount of serotonin activity in the brain, and this has been found to reduce anxiety relieving OCD symptoms
Important part of applied psychology as it helps, improve the lives of those with OCD

61
Q

Evaluation points for the neural explanation to explaining OCD

A

Biologically reductionist
Practical applications

62
Q

PEEL: neural explanation to explaining OCD
Biologically reductionist

A

Biologically reductionist
Reduces complex human behaviour of OCD down to simple basic units of an imbalance in neurotransmitters, for example, low serotonin activity
This neglects a holistic approach, which would take into account, help persons culture, and social context could influence OCD
For example, research has shown that there is a higher problems of OCD in certain religious groups where regular cleansing before prayer is a daily ritual
Explanation lacks validity as it doesn’t allow us to understand the behaviour in context

63
Q

PEEL: neural exploration to explaining OCD
Practical applications

A

Practical applications
The principles of the series that OCD is due to an imbalance in neurotransmitters, for example, low serotonin activity has led to the development of drug treatments
For example, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI) these work by increasing the amount of serotonin activity in the brain This has been found to reduce anxiety relieving OCD symptoms.
Important part of applied psychology as it helps, improve the lives of those with OCD

64
Q

Outline the biological approach to treating OCD

A

Drug therapy is the biological treatment for OCD
Works by balancing levels of neurotransmitters in the brain in order to relieve symptoms of OCD
For example selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI)
SSRI are serotonin agonists
They increase serotonin activity levels by blocking the reabsorption of serotonin to the presynaptic neuron, thus, increasing serotonin levels in the synapse, so it continues to activate the postsynaptic neuron
These drugs have been shown to reduce anxiety associated with OCD
SSRI usually take around 3 to 4 months to alleviate symptoms and the dosage can vary from person to person
In the past few years, a different class of anti-depressant drugs called SNRI (serotonin norapinphorine re-up take inhibitors ) has been used to treat OCD, these increased levels of serotonin and noradrenaline activity and can be used if SSRI have not been effective

65
Q

Evaluation points for biological approach to treating OCD

A

Rts soomro et al
Little motivation required
Negative side effects

66
Q

PEEL: biological approach to treating OCD
Rts soomro et al

A

Rts soomro et al
Reviewed 17 studies of the use of SSRI to treat ocd
Found SSRI were more effective in reduces symptoms compared to placebos
Typically symptoms were reduced in around 70% of people of people taking ssri and the other 30% were helped using alternative drugs and psychological therapies
Shows effectiveness

67
Q

PELL: biological approach to treating OCD
Requires little motivation

A

Requires little motivation from patient
As all they have to do is remember to take a tablet in order to reduce their symptoms of ocd
This may be a better option than cbt to treat ocd as it requires motivation form patients to attend sessions to challange their irrational beliefs, obsessions.
Some patients may prefer drug therapy as a treatment of depression

68
Q

PEEL: biological approach to treating ocd

A

Can cause negative side effects
For example ssri can cause nausea, headaches and insomnia
This is an issue as patients may become distressed form negative side effect and may stop taking their medication due to these negative effects
Reduces effectiveness of drug therapy as a treatment of ocd

Psychology Me (10 decks)

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