psychopathology Flashcards
Intro to definition of abnormality
Abnormality is extremely difficult to define because it can take many different forms and involve many different factors. However, several attempts have been made to define abnormality.
What are the four definitions of abnormality
Definition 1 : deviation from social norms (DSN)
Definition 2 : failure to function adequately
Definition 3 deviation from ideal mental health
Definition 4 : statistical frequency
What is deviation from social norms (DSN) - A01
(3 marks & example)
Standards of acceptable behaviour are set by a social group (social norms) (1)
These behaviours could be explicit e.g laws or implicit e.g unwritten rules (2)
Anything that deviates from acceptable behaviour is considered abnormal (3)
For example,
In OCD, some individuals may refuse to use the cutlery at restaurants and choose instead to bring their own due to fear of contamination.
This would break the expected ways of behaving in society and so would be seen as abnormal
What is failure to function adequately- A01
(3 marks & example)
This involves not being able to cope with demands of everyday (1)
It looks at abnormal behaviour that interferes with everyday life e.g unable to maintain basic standards of nutrition or personal hygiene (2)
Rosenhan & Seligman state that signs of a personal failing to function adequately include ; maladaptive behaviour, irrational behaviour, behaviour that is dangerous to themselves or others, severe personal distress (3)
For example,
Someone with depression may not be able to keep a job, get up in the morning, their eating habits may change or they are unable to maintain relationships.
Therefore shows that they have an inability to cope with everyday life
* has to link with mental health
What is deviation for, ideal mental health - A01
(2 marks & name 2 examples for the 3rd mark)
Acronym to help
Students
Should
Revise
All
Relevant
Material
Jahoda (1958) says there are six criteria that define mental healthiness (1)
Failure to meet one or ,pre of these criteria would suggest an abnormality , the more criteria they fail to meet = the more abnormal the person would be deemed (2)
(3)
Self attitude - having high self esteem & strong sense of identity
Self actualisation- the extent to which am individual works to their capabilities and reaches their full potential
Resistance to stress (integration). - being resistant to stress
Anatomy - being independent and self regulating
Reality - having an accurate perception of reality/ the world
Mastery of environment - ability to love, function at work and in relationships, solve problems, adjust to new situations, enjoy our leisure
What is statistical frequency - A01
(3 marks & example)
This definition of abnormality suggests that we must look at behaviours that are typical (normal) of the general population (1)
Then any behaviour which is rare (not shown by many people) is abnormal (2)
Therefore, on a distribution curve any behaviour that is 2 or more standard deviation from the mean is statistically rare (3)
For example,
OCD affects 2% of the population so is therefore abnormal as it is statistically rare
Define phobias (2)
Phobias are when you experience extreme fear or anxiety , activated by an object (e.g spider), place (e.g lifts) or situation (e.g crowds) (1)
The fear of the phobic stimulus is irrational and often out of proportion to any real danger (2)
What do the following characteristics mean ;
Behavioural
Emotional
Cognitive
Behavioural - the ways in which people act
Emotional - the ways in which people feel
Cognitive - the process of thinking ; knowing, perceiving, what we pay attention to
Discuss the behavioural approach to explaining phobias (6 marks)
The behavioural approach suggests that phobias are learned behaviour (1)
Morwrer argues that phobias are initially learnt through classical conditioning then managing through operant conditioning. This is called two-process model. (2)
Acquisition by classic conditioning (3rd mark)
Classical conditioning involves learning to associate something we initially have no fear of (name it - a neutral stimulus) with something that already triggers a fear response (name it - unconditioned stimulus)
This fear repose is triggered every time we see or hear the feared object
(4th mark - how little Albert learned his phobias of rats)
Maintenance by operant conditioning (5 & 6)
Response acquired by conditioning tend to decline I’m over time but Mowrer emphasised that phobias are maintained through operant conditioning (5)
Because by continuing to avoid the feared stimulus they are being negatively reinforced ( explain - avoiding something unpleasant) by reducing the anxiety they feel.
This explains why phobias are long lasting, through continued avoidance. (6)
How did little Albert learned his phobias of rats (4th point in a 16 marker)
The beginning of the experiment - little Albert was NOT AFRAID OF RATS
Whenever the rat was presented to Albert - the researcher’s made a loud, frightening noise by banging an iron bar close to Albert’s ear.
The noise is an unconditioned stimulus, which causes the unconditioned response for fear.
When the rat (neutral stimulus) was presented with the loud bang = Albert
learned to associate them together
Rat then became a conditioned stimulus and caused the conditioned response of fear in little Albert whenever he saw the rat
This fear then generalised to similar objects such as fur coat and the beard on a Santa Claus mask.
What are the behavioural approaches to treating phobias ?
Systematic desensitisation
Flooding
What is the aim of systematic desensitisation ?
To use classical conditioning to unlearn a maladaptive behavioural response to a phobic stimulus (feared situation or object)
Describe systematic desensitisation (6)
Acronym to help;
Rihanna (1)
Has (2 & 3)
Got excellent (4 & 5)
Clothing taste (6)
Relaxation - patient is taught how to relax using muscle relaxation techniques or breathing exercises. The idea is that the patient will put these techniques into practise when exposed to the phobia. (1)
Hierarchy of anxiety - patient works with a therapist to make a graded scale starting with stimuli that scares them the least to those that scare them the most. (2)
E.g - If they were scared of wasps a picture of wasps would be low h the scale and being put in a room with a wasp would be highest on the scale (3)
AO2 LINK HERE IF A SCENARIO
Gradual exposure - the client is then gradually exposed to the least feared situation (bottom of hierarchy) they may seek anxious but are encouraged to our the relaxation techniques into practise.
Known as reciprocal inhibition - the concept whereby two incompatible states of mind cannot co-exist at the same time e.g anxiety & relaxation. (4)
Once they are relaxed then they are exposed to the next stage of the hierarchy.
This is a gradual process and the clients only move behind each stage once they are relaxed. (5)
Complete treatment - the patient completes treatment when they are desensitised and are able to move through the hierarchy.
Without anxiety, the patient now associates the phobic stimulus with relaxation (CR)
(6)
What is the aim of flooding ?
To use classical conditioning to unlearn a maladaptive behavioural response to a phobic stimulus (feared situation or object)
Describe flooding (3)
The patient is immediately exposed to their most feared stimulus and must stay in its presence (1)
They will experience high levels of anxiety and panic ; they are unable to avoid the stimulus. They remain exposed to its until the anxiety response is exhausted/ feel calm and start to decrease (2)
Lasts around 2-3 hours until the patients anxiety eventually disappears.
This is known as extinction and the patient learns that the phobic stimulus is harmless. (3)
Identify the clinical characteristics or phobias
(2 of each)
Behavioural - panic - crying, screaming g or running away from the Phobos stimulus, alternatively, freezing or fainting. (priority)
Avoidance of the feared object - making conscious effort to avoid coming in contact with their phobic stimulus
Emotional - anxiety - exposure to the phobic stimulus causes worry or distress
fear - exposure to the phobic stimulus causes worry or distress
Cognitive - persistent irrational beliefs - about the phobia stimulus E.g a spider will kill harm you
Selective attention - keeping attention on the phobic stimulus and finding it difficult to look away in case of “danger”
Outline the behavioural characteristics of depression (2)
(Priority) change in activity levels - a lack of energy and withdrawal from activities once enjoyed (anhedonia) or increased activity
Disruption to sleep - sleep may reduce (insomnia) or may increase (hypersomnia)
Disruption to eating behaviour - increased appetite leading to weight gain or decreased appetite leading to weight loss
Describe the emotional characteristics of depression (2)
(Priority) lowered mood - often experiencing feelings ‘sad’ ‘empty’ and ‘worthless’ ‘numb’
Anger - sometimes individuals experience anger directed towards others or the self
Outline the cognitive characteristics of depression (2)
Poor levels of concentration - the sufferer may find themselves unable to stick with a task as they usually would or make straightforward decisions, this can interfere with the individuals work.
Negative schema (mental representation) - if someone has a negative ‘schema’, they will interpret all information in a negative way, ignoring the positives
Black and white/ absolutist thinking- viewing an unfortunate situation as an absolute disaster
Intro to the cognitive approach to explaining depression
The approach explains how depression is caused by the way we think about information. Therefore, if our thoughts and perceptions are irrational and negative then we are more vulnerable to depression.
Describe becks negative triad (3)
Beck (1967) suggested a cognitive approach to explaining depression
He states that consistent negative thinking can make a person vulnerable to depression
He proposed the negative triad to explain this and suggested 3 kinds of negative thinking that makes someone vulnerable to depression
- Negative views about the world - E.g the world is a hard place
- Negative views about oneself - E.g i hate myself, I am worthless
- Negative views about the future - E.g i will never achieve anything
Describe Ellis’s ABC model (irrational thoughts) (3)
Ellis (1962) suggested the ABC model as a cognitive explanation of depression
Ellis ABC model emphasises the role of irrational thoughts that interfere with us being happy and free of pain
Ellis suggests that there is an ACTIVATING EVENT (A) - this is an external event such as the loss of a job (1)
That can trigger irrational BELIEFS (B) Ellis identified a range or irrational believes that are triggered like the belief that we must always achieve perfection (musterbation) and a belief that life should be fair (utopianism) (2)
When an activating event triggers these irrational beliefs there are then emotional and behaviour CONSEQUENCES (C) such as depression (3)
What is the cognitive approach to treating depression - describe cognitive behavioural therapy as a treatment for depression
(Describe all Ao1 for the 16m)
Intro - cognitive behavioural therapy is a method for treating mental health disorders based on cognitive and behavioural techniques from the cognitive viewpoint therefore a cognitive treatment
Cognitive aim - the client and therapist work together to identify irrational or negative thoughts that cause depression (thought catching) in a client.
The irrational and negative thoughts then challenged to be turned into more rational and positive thinking.
Behaviour aim - CBT then involved working to change the negative and irrational thoughts by -> putting more effective behaviours in place.
2 strategies can be used to challenge irrational or negative thoughts
The first is empirical disputing - the therapist will ask for evidence to support the the irrational/ negative thought. For example, “where is the proof nobody likes you”
The therapist may do this is by getting clients to complete homework and to keep a diary to test the reality of their beliefs.
For example, they may ask the client to record whenever anybody is nice to them, then in future sessions the therapist can use the record to challenge the clients beliefs that nobody likes them and proves their statements are incorrect.
Another way is behavioural activation - used to change clients behaviour, such as encouraging depressed individual to be more active.
Includes doing activities they once enjoyed, will help improve persons mood and reduce the negative thoughts
CBT practised with the therapist but during treatment client becomes more independent so they used the strategies in the real world and gain control over their depressive thoughts
Outline the behavioural characteristics of OCD (2)
(Priority) compulsions - external behaviours that are repeated to reduce anxiety. For example, checking, counting and washing hands
Avoidance - or situations that trigger compulsions them e.g a person with cleaning ritual may attempt to avoid germs by not shaking hands with people
