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1
Q

Define coding

A

This is how we process information, changing it to a suitable form so it can be stored e.g, the STM codes acoustically

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2
Q

How is the sensory register coded

A

Modality specific (depends on the sense being used e.g visual - iconic)

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3
Q

How is the STM coded

A

Acoustically

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4
Q

How is the LTM coded

A

Semantically

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5
Q

Define capacity

A

This is the amount of information that can be held in memory e.g, the capacity of STM is 5-9 items

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6
Q

What is the capacity of the sensory register

A

Unlimited

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7
Q

What is the capacity of the STM

A

7+/-2 items
5-9 items

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8
Q

What is the capacity of the LTM

A

Unlimited

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9
Q

Define duration

A

This is how long the information lasts in mmeory e.g, information lasts 18-30 seconds in STM

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10
Q

What is the duration for the sensory register

A

Limited - less than 0.5 seconds (250 milliseconds)

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11
Q

What is the duration for the STM

A

Limited 18-30 seconds

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12
Q

What is the duration for the LTM

A

Potentially forever, a lifetime

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13
Q

Who conducted research on coding

A

Baddeley

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14
Q

How many experiments did Baddeley conduct on coding

A

2

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15
Q

What was the aim of Baddeley’s first study

A

To investigate how we code information in our STM

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16
Q

What was the procedure of Baddeley’s first study

A

Showed ppts a list of 4 categories

  1. Acoustically similar - cat, sat, mat, bat
  2. Acoustically dissimilar - tree, house, flour
  3. Semantically similar - kip, doze, nap, sleep
  4. Semantically dissimilar - cake, book, plane

Immediately after each presentation, ppts were asked to recall the lists in the CORRECT ORDER

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17
Q

What were the findings of Baddeley’s first study

A

More mistakes made on the acoustically similar list

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18
Q

What was the conclusion of Baddeley’s first study

A

Suggests STM mainly codes information acoustically

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19
Q

What was the aim of Baddeley’s second study

A

To investigate how we code information in our LTM

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20
Q

What was the procdure of Baddeley’s second study

A

Showed ppts a list of 4 categories

  1. Acoustically similar - cat, sat, mat, bat
  2. Acoustically dissimilar - tree, house, flour
  3. Semantically similar - kip, doze, nap, sleep
  4. Semantically dissimilar - cake, book, plane

20 minutes after each presentation, ppts were asked to recall the lists in the CORRECT ORDER

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21
Q

What were the findings of Baddeley’s second study

A

More mistakes made on the semantically similar list

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22
Q

What was the conclusion of Baddeley’s second study

A

Suggests LTM mainly codes information semantically

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23
Q

What experiments did Baddeley conduct

A

Research into the coding of the STM
Research into the coding of the LTM

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24
Q

Who conducted research into the capacity of the STM

A

Miller

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25
Q

What was the aim of Miller’s study

A

To investigate the capacity of the STM

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26
Q

What was the procedure of Miller’s study

A

He used ‘the digit span technique’. Ppts were given strings of unrelated digits that increased by one digit every time.

(e.g do not have a pattern 2,4,6,8. Are not repeated 111, do not make up acronyms LOL)

The ppts digit span was measured until the point where they could no longer recall the digits in the correct sequence

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27
Q

What were the findings of Miller’s study

A

Ppts could recall 5-9 items, more could be recalled if items were ‘chunked’
E.g a Ppt can remember 5 words just as well as 5 letters

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28
Q

What was the conclusion of Miller’s study

A

Capacity of STM is limited (5-9 items), our digit span can be increased by putting several items in meaningful chunks

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29
Q

Who conducted research on the duration of the STM

A

Peterson and Peterson

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30
Q

What was the aim of Peterson and Peterson’s study

A

To investigate the duration of the STM

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31
Q

What was the sample for Peterson and Peterson’s study

A

24 Undergraduate students

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32
Q

What was the procedure for Peterson and Peterson’s study

A

Participants were briefly presented with a consonant trigram (HDF) to remember.

They were then given a three digit number and asked to count backwards from this number to prevent rehearsal.

They were stopped at different intervals (3,6,9,12,15,18 seconds) and asked to recall the consonant trigram.

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33
Q

What were the findings of Peterson and Peterson’s study

A

After 3 seconds only 80% recalled the trigram correctly. After 18 seconds fewer than 10% recalled correctly.

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34
Q

What was the conclusion for Peterson and Peterson’s study

A

Information in the STM lasts 18 – 30 seconds, unless it is rehearsed.

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35
Q

Who conducted a study on the duration of the LTM

A

Bahrick

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36
Q

What was the aim of Bahrick’s study

A

To investigate the duration of the LTM

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37
Q

What was the procedure of Bahrick’s study

A

Bahrick tested 392 American high school graduates aged between 17 and 74 on their memory of their former classmates.

In Condition 1 they had to recall the names of classmates using a photo yearbook, in condition 2 they had to recall the names of their class with no photo cue.

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38
Q

What were the findings of Bahrick’s study

A

In condition one, 70% of participants recalled accurately after 48 years.
In condition two, 30% of participants recalled accurately after 48 years

39
Q

What was the conclusion for Bahrick’s study

A

The shows certain types of information can potentially last a lifetime, especially with the correct cues.

40
Q

Who created the Multi-store model

A

Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)

41
Q

Intro to multi-store model essay

A

Atkinson and Shiffrin’s multi-store model describes how information flows through memory.

It is a structural model stating that Sensory, Short Term Memory (STM) and Long Term Memory (LTM) are separate unitary stores,

and that information flows through the system in a linear way.

42
Q

Outline the multi-sore model of memory

A

A stimulus from the environment (for example the sound of someone’s name) will pass in to the sensory register.

This part of memory has several stores (one for each of the five senses) and coding in each store is modality specific.

The two main stores are echoic (sound/auditory information – coded acoustically) and iconic (visual information – coded visually).

• Information in the sensory register has a duration of less than a second. The capacity of the sensory register is high.

• Information passes from the sensory register to the STM only if attention is paid to it. If it is not being paid attention to, the information decays

• STM is a limited capacity store, the capacity of information is 5-9 items (Miller’s Magic Number). Information in the STM is coded acoustically and the duration of information is 18-30 seconds, unless it is rehearsed.

• If maintenance rehearsal occurs (repeating the information to ourselves) it can increase the length of time the information is held in STM. If the information is rehearsed enough, it will pass to the LTM.

• LTM is a potentially permanent store for information that has been rehearsed for a prolonged time. Psychologists believe that the capacity is potentially unlimited and that information can last a lifetime in the LTM. The LTM codes information semantically.

To recall information, it must be transferred from LTM to STM, in a process called retrieval

43
Q

Who proposed types of long term memory (intro)

A

Tulving

He believed the MSM view of LTM was too simplistic. He proposed that there are three different LTM stores: procedural, semantic and episodic

44
Q

Outline what is meant by procedural memory, include one example

A

Procedural memory is a part of the long-term memory is responsible for knowing how to do things, i.e. memory of motor skills, such as riding a bike.

Procedural memories are non-declarative, they do not involve conscious thought (i.e. it’s unconscious - automatic)

The area of the brain responsible for procedural long-term memories is the Cerebellum and Motor Cortex.

45
Q

Outline what is meant by semantic memory, include at least one example

A

Semantic memory is a part of the long-term memory responsible for storing knowledge about the world. For example, knowledge about the meaning of words, such as ‘love’, as well as general knowledge such as facts i.e. London is the capital of England.

Semantic memories are non declarative, they do not involve conscious thought (i.e. not automatic – have to think about them)

Semantic memories are not ‘time stamped’ – we do not usually remember when and where we first learned/coded the information.

The brain area responsible for semantic long-term memories is the Temporal Lobe.

46
Q

Outline what is meant by Episodic memory, include at least one example

A

Episodic memory is a part of the long-term memory responsible for storing information about events (i.e. episodes) that we have experienced in our lives at a specific time, for example our first day of school.

Episodic memories involve conscious thought and they are declarative.

Episodic memories are ‘time stamped’ – we remember when and where we coded/learned these memories.

The brain area responsible for episodic long-term memories is the Hippocampus.

47
Q

Define declarative

A

Whether it involves conscious recall or not

48
Q

What does ‘time stamped’ mean

A

When you first learnt it

49
Q

What is the capacity of the central executive (the boss) vs the coding

A

Limited storage
Whereas
Any type of information

50
Q

What is the capacity of the phonological loop (slave one) vs the coding

A

Limited (2 seconds worth of what you can say)
Whereas
Acoustically

51
Q

What is the capacity of the Visuo spatial sketch pad (slave 2) vs the coding

A

Limited 3-4 objects
Whereas
Visually

52
Q

What is the capacity of the episodic buffer (slave 3) vs the coding

A

Limited - about 4 chunks
Whereas
Any type of information

53
Q

Intro for the working memory model

A

Baddeley and Hitch (1974) proposed the Working Memory Model as an explanation of how the STM works.

They proposed that the STM was not a unitary store (like the MSM predicts), but a number of different stores, which are all connected but work independently.

54
Q

Outline the central executive component of the WMM

A

The central executive is an attentional process that monitors incoming data and DECIDES what needs to be done and when and DELEGATES tasks accordingly to the slave systems, it can code any type of information.

The central executive keeps any eye on what is happening in the slave systems and takes over the most DEMANDING task where necessary. Any task that is new/requires concentration (attention) will overload the central executive as it has a very limited capacity.

55
Q

Outline the phonological loop as a component of the WMM

A

AUDITORY information is passed from the CE to the phonological loop.
Baddeley further subdivided the PL into 2 parts;

THE PHONOLOGICAL STORE – which stores the words we hear, like an inner ear.
THE ARTICULATORY LOOP – silently repeats/rehearses words that are seen or heard, to keep them in memory, like an inner voice. (maintenance rehearsal)

The PL has a LIMITED CAPACITY and CODES ACCOUSTICALLY

56
Q

Outline the visuo-spatial sketch pad as a component of the WMM

A

VISUAL information is passed from the CE to the VSS, like an inner eye.

It is responsible for setting up mental images and is what you use if you have to plan a spatial task, e.g. GIVING DIRECTIONS. It TEMPORARILY stores VISUAL (what things look like) and SPATIAL (the physical relationship between things) information.

Logie (1995) subdivided the VSS into:

The visual cache – which stores visual data.
The inner scribe – which records the arrangement of objects in the visual field.

The VSS has a LIMITED CAPACITY (3-4 objects) and CODES VISUALLY

57
Q

Outline the episodic buffer as a component of the WMM

A

This is a general store, later added by Baddeley and Hitch in 2000. The EB collects and combines information from the CE, PL and VSS to record an event (episode). The EB transfers information to the LTM and is used to retrieve information from the LTM to the STM.

** The EB has a LIMITED CAPACITY (4 chunks) and can CODE ANY TYPE of information**

58
Q

Explain the role of the central executive in more demanding tasks that require concentration and the impact this has on the concentration

A

The central executive keeps any eye on what is happening in the slave systems and takes over the most DEMANDING task where necessary. Any task that is new/requires concentration (attention) will overload the central executive as it has a very limited capacity.

59
Q

Explain what can happen if the same store is given 2 tasks to complete at the same time (dual task)

A

If a person completes two tasks at the same time that use the same slave system then performance is reduced (because they have a limited capacity), but not if the tasks use different slave systems (as there is not competition for a limited capacity).

60
Q

What are the 2 explanations of interference theory

A

Interference theory (proactive & retroactive)

Retrieval failure due to absence of cues (context dependent forgetting & state dependent forgetting)

61
Q

Intro to interference theory

A

Interference theory suggests that forgetting occurs due to two lots of information, coded at different times becoming confused in the LTM, one memory disrupts the ability to recall another memory.

This is most likely to occur when the information is similar.
There are two types of interference; proactive interference & retroactive interference

62
Q

Describe proactive interference as an explanation of forgetting (2)

Remember pro = past information

A

In proactive interference, forgetting occurs when past information stored disrupts the recall of new/recent information stored (1)

for example the memory of an old phone number means you FORGET your new phone number (2)

63
Q

Describe retroctive interference as an explanation of forgetting (2)

Remember retro = recent information

A

In retroactive interference, forgetting occurs when recent information stored disrupts the recall of past information stored (1)

for example, the memory of a new car registration number means you FORGET your previous registration(2)

64
Q

Intro to retrieval failure due to absence of cues

A

Retrieval failure due to absence of cues suggests that forgetting occurs when information is still in the LTM, but can’t be accessed due to a lack of memory cues.

65
Q

Outline context dependent forgetting (3)

A

One type of retrieval failure is context dependent forgetting, in which forgetting occurs due to a lack of external cues to trigger recall (1)

because the environment is different at recall to when the information was coded meaning forgetting is more likely (2)

for example, a person may forget information when sitting an exam in a different classroom which they learned the information.(3)

66
Q

Outline state dependent forgetting (3)

A

Another type of retrieval failure is state dependent forgetting, in which forgetting occurs due to a lack of internal cues to trigger recall (1)

because a person’s internal physical and/or emotional state is different at recall to when the information was coded meaning forgetting is more likely (2)

For example, a person may forget a dance routine on stage because when they learned the routine they may have been calm, but on stage they are anxious (3)

67
Q

What are the factors affecting eyewitness testimony

A

Misleading information
Broken down into -> leading questions (loftus and palmer ) & post-event discussion

Anxiety (Johnson & Scott)

68
Q

What is a leading question (1)

A

A leading question is a question that wrongly implies something about an even or crime and can therefore affect the accuracy of EWT. Such as ‘what colour was the youth’s jacket?’ implies the perpetrator was a youth. (1)

69
Q

How does leading questions affect the accuracy of eye witness testimony (1)

A

This affects the accuracy of EWT as the information that is implied in the question contaminates the witness’s memory and therefore witnesses recall inaccurate information (1)

70
Q

What was aim of Loftus and Palmer’s study

A

To investigate whether the phrasing of a question can affect participants’ memory of an event.

71
Q

What was the method of Loftus and Palmer’s study

A

Lab experiment

72
Q

What was the sample of Loftus and Palmer’s study

A

45 American students (split into 5 groups of 9)

73
Q

What was the procedure of Loftus and Palmer’s study

A

Participants were shown a video of a car crash and each group was asked one of 5 critical questions: (IV)

“About how fast were the cars travelling when they **** each other?”

Smashed, hit, collided, bumped or contacted.

Loftus and Palmer measured participants’ speed estimates (DV)

74
Q

What were the findings of Loftus and Palmer’s study

A

They found participants guessed a higher mean speed when they had ‘smashed’ (40.8mph) compared to contacted (31.8mph).

75
Q

What was the conclusion for Loftus & Palmer’s study

A

The phrasing of a question can influence a participant’s memory of an event.

76
Q

What is meant by post event discussion (1)

A

Where witnesses of an event discuss their accounts with each other (1)

77
Q

How does post event discussion affect EWT

A

Affects it in 2 ways
Memory contamination
Memory conformity

78
Q

Define memory contamination (2)

A

When Co-witnesses to a crime discuss it with each other their EWT may become altered or distorted (1)

This is because they combine (mis) information from other witnesses with their own memories suggesting that their memories of the event have changed because of post event discussion (2)

79
Q

Define memory conformity(2)

A

Witnesses go along with each other either to win social approval (NSI) or because they believe the other witness is right and they are wrong (ISI) (1)

However, unlike with memory contamination, the memory remains unchanged, but the accuracy of recall has been affected

80
Q

Who conducted anxiety

A

Johnson & Scott

81
Q

What is meant by anxiety (1)

A

Anxiety is a strong emotional and physical state that affects EWT (1)

82
Q

How does anxiety affect the accuracy of EWT (1)

A

Extreme anxiety has been found to negatively affect EWT as witnesses only focus on certain aspects of the event so their recall is limited (1)

83
Q

What was the aim of Johnson & Scott’s study

A

To investigate the effects of anxiety on the accuracy of eyewitness testimony

84
Q

What was the method of Johnson & Scott’s study

A

Laboratory experiment

85
Q

What was the procedure of Johnson & Scott’s stud

A

• Participants were placed in one of two conditions either a high anxiety, ‘weapon focus’ condition or low anxiety condition. (IV)

• All participants were told to wait outside a room before the experiment began.

• In the high anxiety, ‘weapon focus’ condition participants heard an argument and the sound of breaking glass from within the room, and a man walked out of the room carrying a knife covered with blood.

• The low anxiety condition heard the argument from within the room before a man walked out with grease on their hands and a pen.

•Participants then had to identify the person who left the room from 50 photographs. (DV)

86
Q

What were the findings for Johnson and Scott’s

A

Ppts in low anxiety condition correctly identified the man leaving the room 49% of the time where as

Ppts in high anxiety condition correctly identified the man leaving the room 33% of the time

87
Q

What was the conclusion for Johnson & Scott’s study

A

Anxiety caused ‘weapon focus’ as the witness concentrates on the weapon not the person because of the fear of the situation, reducing accuracy of recall.

88
Q

Improving the accuracy of EWT - the cognitive interview intro

A

Fisher and Geiselman (1992) developed the cognitive interview, it is a technique used by police to interview witnesses after they have seen a crime or accident to help facilitate the most accurate and detailed memory possible, lots of ‘open’ questions are asked where the witness is not interrupted and free to expand on their own answers.

89
Q

Describe the differences E between the cognitive interview vs standard interview

A

Cognitive interview
Open ended questions & not interrupted

Whereas

Standard interview
Loses direct questions
Often interrupted

90
Q

What are the four cognitive interview techniques

A

Recall everything
Context reinstatement
Recall in reverse
Recall from changed perspective

91
Q

Describe recall everything
Include - description, how it will improve & an example

A
  1. The witness is asked to report all details of the event and the environment even if it seems trivial
  2. Might act as a trigger to a memory
  3. “Start from the beginning, what happened the morning of the robbery”
92
Q

Describe context reinstatement
Include - description, how it will improve & an example

A
  1. The witness is asked to mentally place themselves back at the scene of the event and imagine the environment, such as the weather and what they could see, and their emotions
  2. Using context & state dependent cues may help to trigger memories of the event that may appear forgotten but are not currently accessible due to retrieval failure
  3. “Close your eyes… what do you see, what’s the weather like, what was x wearing m how were you feeling when…”
93
Q

Describe recall in reverse
Include - description, how it will improve & an example

A
  1. The witness is asked to report what happened in a different chronological order, for example from the end of the crime to the start
  2. Prevents witnesses reporting what they expected to happen (schema) rather than what happened, it also prevents dishonesty, as it is harder to lie when having to reverse a story
  3. “Tell us what happened from when you entered the bank”
94
Q

Describe recall from changes perspective
Include - description, how it will improve & an example

A
  1. The witness is asked to recall the incident from another person’s perspective who witnessed the crime E.g, another witness or perpetrator
  2. May prevent witnesses reporting what they expected to happen (schema) rather than what happened
  3. “Imagine, you’re the bank robber… what do you see”

psychology paper 1 (4 decks)

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