attachment

Question 1

Define the attachment (3)

Think - emotional link
Closeness
Starts
Responsiveness -> effect

Answer 1

An emotional link between an infant and caregiver (1)

each seek closeness and feel more secure when in the presence of the attachment figure (2)

Interactions between a carer and an infant is where an attachment figure starts. It is the responsiveness of the caregiver to the infants signals that has a deep effect of the child. (3)

Question 2

How do we researchers recognise an infant has an attachment

Kw - attachment figure
PENS

Answer 2

Proximity - people try to stay physically close to those they are attached too

Separation distress - people are distressed when an attachment figure leaves their presence

Secure base behaviour - we always ‘touch base’ with our attachment figure regularly return to their attachment

Question 3

Define the term interactional synchrony in human care-giver interactions in humans (3)
Provide an example

Answer 3

(1) (mirroring action) caregiver and infant respond in time to keep communication going

(2) e.g infant smiles, caregiver smiles back at the same time

(3) This type of communication ensures infant and caregiver emotions and actions mirror each other

Meltzoff and Moore (77) conducted a controlled observation of forty 2-week old babies to measure caregiver-infant interactions.

An adult displayed one of three facial expressions or disntictive gestures, such as mouth opening or tongue protrusion.

The child’s response was filmed and identified by an independent observer .

A link was found between the facial expression of the adult and the response of the study.

Question 4

Define the term reciprocity in human care-giver interactions in humans (3)
Provide an example

Think - R (response)
R - (receive & give)
Like a couple dance - why

Answer 4

(1) This is a two-way, mutual process where infants and caregivers take turns to respond to each other’s behaviours to sustain interaction
like a conversation

(2) The behaviour of each party elicts a response from the other , e.g child puts arms out to be held - caregiver picks up

Babies have ‘alert phases’ and signal when they are ready for interaction. Mothers pick up on these and act on these signals 2/3rd of the time (Fieldman and Eidelman)

Brazleton said both mother and baby initiate (start) the interaction and take it in turns to do so. He called this the ‘dance’. He said it’s like when a couple dance together they respond to each other’s moves (3rd and 4th mark)

Question 5

What is the aim of Schaffer and Emerson’s research into the stages of attachment

Answer 5

To investigate the formation of early attachment (stages and multiple attachments), the age at which they develop and who they are directed to

Question 6

What is the procedure of Schaffer and Emerson’s research into the stages of attachment (3)

Answer 6

Longitudinal study on 60 working class new-born babies and their mothers from Glasgow

The babies and mothers were visited at their own homes every month for the first year of the baby’s life and again at 18 months

Observations and interviews (with mothers) were used

Question 7

How was attachment measured in Schaffer and Emerson’s research into the stages of attachment

Talk about the stage / key term -> How they assessed it

Answer 7

Measured in 3 ways

1. Separation anxiety - assessed by the infant being left alone in the room, or the researcher asking the mother how the infant reacts in this instance
2. Stranger anxiety - assessed by the researcher starting each home visit by approaching the infant to see if this distressed the child
3. Researchers asked the mothers questions such as who they infants smiled at, whom they respond to

Question 8

What are the findings of Schaffer and Emerson’s research into the stages of attachment

An infant smells milk

Answer 8

Found they were 4 stages of attachment

1. Asocial (first few weeks) - babies behaviour to adults and inanimate objects was similar
2. Indiscriminate (2-7 months) - babies show a preference to people over inanimate objects
   but usually do not show stranger or separation anxiety
3. Specific (from around 7 months) - babies start to form attachments and show separation and stranger anxiety when separated.
   In 65% of cases this was the mother
4. Multiple (within one month of forming a specific attachment) - 29% of children formed multiple attachments.
   By 1 year most infants had multiple attachments.
   At 18 months, 75% of children had an attachment with their father

Question 9

What is the conclusion of Schaffer and Emerson’s research into the stages of attachment

Answer 9

Infants form attachment in stages, multiple attachments can be formed

Question 10

Outline Schaffer’s four stages of attachment
(include the order, the age and the definition)

Answer 10

1. Asocial phase (first few weeks) -
   The baby’s behaviour towards non-human objects and humans is quite similiar.
   However, babies are happier when in the presence of other humans
2. Indiscriminate attachment phase (2-7 months) -
   Babies start to display more observable social behaviour.
   They show a preference for people over inanimate objects (smile more at them) and recognise and prefer familiar adults.
   Babies will usually accept cuddles and comfort from any adult, they usually do not show separation or stranger anxiety
3. Specific attachment phase (from around 7 months)
   From around 7 months the majority of babies start to display stranger anxiety and separation anxiety when separated from one particular adult (the biological mother in 65% of cases)
   This is a specific attachment, and is not necessarily the person
4. Multiple attachments stage -
   Shortly after children show specific attachments, they usually extend this attachment, they usually extend this attachment behaviour to other adults whom they regularly spend time with.
   In Schaffer and Emerson’s study, 29% of children had multiple attachments within a month of forming a specific attachment.
   By the age of 1 year, the majority of infants have developed multiple attachments.
   At 18 months, 75% of infants had an attachment with their father

Question 11

Name the acronym to remember the stages of attachment development

Answer 11

An
Infant
Smells
Milk

Question 12

The role of the father (intro-6 m)

Answer 12

Traditionally psychologists have thought in terms of mother-infant attachments.
Schaffer and Emerson (1964) found the majority of babies do become attached to their mother first (around 7 months) but within a few weeks or months they form secondary attachment to other family members - including the father

Question 13

What are the two psychologists that research into the role of the father

Answer 13

Grossman (2002)
Field (1978) the contradictory research

Question 14

What was the aim of Grossman’s research

Answer 14

Carried out a longitudinal study looking at both parents behaviour and its relationship to the quality of children’s attachment into their teens

Aka - How parents behaviour affects quality of children’s attachment in their teens

Question 15

What was finding 1 and its conclusion into Grossman’s research

Answer 15

Finding 1 - the quality of infant’s attachment with their mothers, but not their fathers, was related to the children’s attachment adolescence

Conclusion - suggesting that the fathers attachment is less important than the mothers

Question 16

What was finding 2 and its conclusion into Grossman’s research

Answer 16

Finding - However, the quality of father’s play with infants was related to the quality the childrens’ adolescent attachment

Conclusion - this suggests fathers have different roles in attachment
one that is more to do with play and stimulation and less to do with nurturing
but is still important for the child’s wellbeing

Question 17

What was the aim of Field’s research

Answer 17

To investigate the role of the father

Question 18

What was the method of Field’s research

Answer 18

Controlled observation

Question 19

What was the procedure of Field’s research

Answer 19

Field (1978) filmed 4 month old babies in face to face interactions with primary caregiver mothers, primary caregiver fathers, and secondary caregiver fathers

Question 20

What were the findings of Field’s research

PCG -> 2nd CG

Answer 20

Primary caregiver fathers, like mothers, spent more time smiling, imitating and holding infants than the secondary caregiver fathers. This is behaviour seems to be more important in building an attachment to an infant

Question 21

What was the conclusion of Field’s research

Answer 21

It seems that fathers can be the more nurturing attachment figure and take on a traditionally maternal role. The key to the attachment relationship is the level of responsiveness not the gender of the parent.

Question 22

What are the 2 animal research studies

Answer 22

Lorenz (geese)
Harlow (monkeys)

Question 23

What was the aim of Lorenz’s study

Answer 23

To investigate the effects of ‘imprinting’ on goslings

Question 24

What was the method of Lorenz’s study

Answer 24

Field experiment

Question 25

What was the procedure of Lorenz’s study

Answer 25

Lorenz randomly divided the goose eggs

Half of the eggs were hatched with the mother goose in their natural environment (control group) IV

The other half were hatched in an incubator where the first moving object they saw was Lorenz (experimental group)

Lorenz recorded the behaviour of the goslings - who they were imprinted on DV

Question 26

What were the findings of Lorenz’s study

Answer 26

The incubator group saw that Lorenz first (experimental group) imprinted upon and followed Lorenz everywhere whereas the group who saw the mother goose first (control group) imprinted upon and followed her

Lorenz identified a critical period (12-17 hours after hatching) in which imprinting needs to take place. If ‘imprinting’ did not occur within that time Lorenz suggests that chicks will not attach themselves to a mother figure

In addition, goslings who imprinted on to humans would, as adult birds, attempt to mate with humans (sexual imprinting)

Question 27

What was the conclusion of Lorenz’s study

Answer 27

Goslings imprint on the first moving object hey see, there is a specific time period in which this needs to take place, otherwise they will not attach

Question 28

What was the aim of Harlow’s research

Answer 28

To investigate whether food or comfort is more important in the formation of attachments

Question 29

What was the method of Harlow’s research

Answer 29

Lab experiment (controlled experiment)

Question 30

What was the procedure of Harlow’s research

Answer 30

16 baby rhesus monkeys were separated from their mothers at birth and brought up in cages
The cages contained surrogate mothers - a wire mother and a cloth mother with milk IV

The amount of time spent with mother was recorded DV
The monkeys were frightened with a loud noise to test which mother they preferred when stressed
The long term effects were recorded, such as sociability and relationships to their future offspring

Question 31

What were the findings of Harlow’s research

Answer 31

Monkeys spent more time with the cloth mother than the wire mother

When frightened the monkeys would go to the cloth mother

The monkeys later in life had emotional damage such as being inadequate mothers when they were older

Question 32

What was the conclusion for Harlow’s research

Answer 32

Contact comfort is the most important factor when forming an attachment

Question 33

What are the two different explanations for attachment

Answer 33

Learning theory (behavioural) - infants learn to attach to whoever feeds them
broken down into ->

Classical conditioning - learning to attach through stimulus, response and associations (Pavlov)
Operant conditioning - learning to attach through rewards, reinforcements and punishments (Skinner)

Bowlby’s monotropic theory (evolutionary) - attachment is innate, we are born with the ability to attach (social releasers)

Question 34

The learning theory linked to attachment classical conditioning introduction

Answer 34

The learning theory emphasises the importance of food in the formation of attachment, and is known as the ‘cupboard love’ theory, as it suggests infants learn to attach to whoever feeds them

Question 35

Describe the learning theory as an explanation of attachment

Answer 35

Milk provided is an UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS (which the infant naturally needs to survive), which provides an UNCONDITIONED RESPONSE in the infant of pleasure.

This response is AUTOMATIC and does not need to be LEARNT.

The NEAUTRAL STIMULUS is the FEEDER - through repetition of feeding the infant learns to associate the feeder with food and pleasure.

Therefore, the FEEDER becomes a CONDITIONED STIMULUS - just the sight of the feeder will indicate to the child that they will get fed - this will produce the CONDITIONED response of pleasure.

According to a learning theorist, this is the basis of attachment love as the child then seeks to be near the feeder.

Question 36

What is operant conditioning
Refer to positive and negative reinforcement and punishment

Answer 36

Operant conditioning is learning behaviour through rewards, reinforcements and punishments

Positive reinforcement - if we are rewarded for a behaviour, the behaviour will be repeated to gain the same reward

Negative reinforcement - if doing a behaviour avoids the negative consequence, the behaviour will be repeated to avoid the negative consequences again

Punishment - if we are punished for behaviour, the behaviour will stop

Question 37

Describe operant conditioning as an explanation of attachment

Answer 37

Operant conditioning can be used to explain why babies cry to comfort, an important behaviour in building an attachment

When an infant is hungry and cries, this leads to a response from the caregiver - for example, feeding. This is a positive reinforcement for the infant as the infant receives the reward of food, and the crying behaviour is reinforced.

At the same time, when the caregiver feeds the infant, the crying stops, this is negative reinforcement for the caregiver as the negative stimulus of crying has been removed, and the feeding behaviour is reinforced

This mutual reinforcement strengthens an attachment

Question 38

Describe Bowlby’s monotropic theory of attachment

Answer 38

A Snap Chat Makes Images
Adaptive
Social releasers
Critical (sensitive) period
Monotropy
Internal working model

Question 39

Describe the adaptive stage

Answer 39

Bowlby suggested that attachment is an innate system, it is inherited in order to improve survival and therefore is adaptive .

Bowlby suggested infants are born ‘programmed’ to attach and parents are also ‘programmed to attach’

Question 40

Describe social releasers

Answer 40

Bowlby states that infants are born with social releasers such as smiling, crying and looking ‘cute’
this triggers a response in caregiver and ensures interaction takes place to form an attachment

Question 41

Describe the critical (sensitive) period

Answer 41

Bowlby proposed a critical period for attachment in an infant to take place, this is a biological period.
If an attachment does not take place during the set development period of the first 2.5 years of life - THEN IT MAY NOT TAKE PLACE AT ALL.

Question 42

Describe monotropy

Answer 42

Bowlby’s theory is described as ‘monotropic’ because he placed a great emphasis on a child’s attachment to one caregiver

He believed this was the most important attachment in a child’s development. Bowlby called this person the mother but it didn’t need to be the biological mother.

STRETCH - the more time a child spends with the monotropy the better, he put forward 2 principles

The law of continuity - suggests the quality of child’s attachment will be better if they receive consistent and predictable care

The law of accumulated separation - having a substantial time apart from the monotropy risks a poor quality attachment

Question 43

Describe the internal working model

Answer 43

The internal working model is a ‘mental representation’ that the child forms of their relationship with their primary caregiver

This serves as a model/template for what relationships are like. A child uses their attachment relationship with their caregiver to build an expectation of what future relationships will be like.

It therefore, has a POWERFUL impact on the child’s future relationships. Future relationships (with peers, romantic partners and own children) mirror childhood attachments

Bowlby believes that internal working models are passed on from one generation to the next, people base their parenting on their own experiences of being partnered

Question 44

Give examples of negative and positive internal working models

Answer 44

Loving relationships with responsive primary care-giver (secure attachment) - child feels secure - positive internal working model - loving future relationships

Poor relationships with unresponsive primary caregiver (insecure attachment) - child feels unworthy - negative internal working model - poor relationships in future

Question 45

What was Ainsworth and bell’s research

Answer 45

In 1970s Ainsworth and bell conducted a controlled observation of children’s attachment using the ‘strange situation classification’

Question 46

What was the sample of Ainsworth’s research

Answer 46

100 middle-class American infants and their mothers

Question 47

What variables did Ainsworth research into

Answer 47

Ainsworth judged the child’s reaction to the following four variables via a two-way mirror

1. Willingness to explore environment
2. Separation anxiety - how the child reacts when the mother leaves
3. Stranger anxiety - how the child reacts to being alone with a stranger
4. Reunion behaviour - how the child behaves when the mother returns

Question 48

What is the procedure for Ainsworth’s research

Answer 48

1. Parent (or caregiver) enters the room with child, child explores for 3 minutes
2. A stranger enters and joins the parent and infant and tries to interact with the child. - measuring stranger anxiety
3. Parent leaves the infant with the stranger - measuring stranger and separation anxiety
4. Parent returns and the stranger leaves. Parent settles the infant - measuring reunion behaviour
5. Parent leaves the child alone - measuring separation anxiety
6. Stranger returns - measuring stranger anxiety
7. Parent returns and stranger leaves - measuring reunion behaviour

Question 49

What are the findings for Ainsworth’s research

Answer 49

Secure - 70%
Insecure-avoidant - 20%
Insecure-resistant - 10%

Question 50

Describe the characteristics of secure attachment

Answer 50

Willing to explore environment - uses mother as secure base

Upset/subdued when mother leaves - separation anxiety

Avoidant of strangers but friendly when mother is present - stranger anxiety

Positive/happy when mother returns - reunion behaviour

Associated with a responsive primary caregiver

Question 51

Describe the characteristics of insecure-avoidant attachment

Answer 51

Willing to explore environment

Unconcerned (indifferent) by mother’s absence (separation anxiety)

Unconcerned, often avoidant of mother and stranger - stranger anxiety

Unresponsive when she returned - reunion behaviour

Associated with an unresponsive primary caregiver

Question 52

Describe the characteristics of insecure-resistant attachment

Answer 52

Low willingness to explore environment

Intensely distressed when mother left - separation anxiety
Extreme fear of strangers - stranger anxiety
Clinginess mixed with rejection on return - reunion behaviour

Associated with inconsistent primary caregiver

Question 53

Who conducted cultural variations in attachment

Answer 53

Van Ijzendoorn

Question 54

What was the aim of Van’s study

Answer 54

To investigate cross cultural variations in attachment

Question 55

What was the sample for Van’s study

Answer 55

32 studies of the strange situation, from 8 countries using around 2000 children

Question 56

What was the procedure/ method of Van’s study

Answer 56

Meta-analysis

Question 57

What were the findings of Van’s study

Answer 57

1.The most common attachment type in all 8 countries was secure attachment
2. The lowest percentage of secure attachment was in China, the highest was in Britain
3. They found considerable differences in insecure types. Insecure-avoidant was the most dominant insecure attachment type in western cultures
where as
Insecure resistant was the most dominant insecure type in non-western cultures (with the exception of China)
4. Most significant findings was that there was 150% greater variation of attachment styles within cultures than between cultures.
e.g. in the USA, one study found 46% of the sample were securely attached compared to another study in the USA. that found 90% of the sample was securely attached

Question 58

What was the conclusion for Van’s study

Answer 58

The results show that there are cultural variations in attachment as insecure types were different.
Although there must be similarities due to secure attachment being most common in all cultures

Question 59

Define the term maternal deprivation (2)

Answer 59

The emotional and intellectual consequences of extended separation between a child and his/her mother or mother substitute (1)
where a child loses an aspect of care, within the critical period (2)

Question 60

What is the difference between separation and deprivation

Answer 60

Separation - child not being in the presence of the primary caregiver
whereas
Deprivation - lose an element of mother case through extended separation which can cause harm

Question 61

Describe Bolwby’s theory of maternal deprivation (2)

Answer 61

Bowlby suggested the idea that continued nurture from a mother substitute within the first 2.5 years of life (critical period) is important for healthy psychological development (1)
If a child has extended periods of separation from the mother within the critical period, where an element of care is lost, then the psychological damage is inevitable and irreversible (1)

Question 62

What 2 kinds of psychological damage did Bowlby propose

Answer 62

Intellectual damage
Emotional damage

Question 63

What is intellectual damage (2)

Answer 63

Includes cognitive impairment, such as an intellectual delay, shown by abnormally low IQ (1)
Goldfarb found lower IQ in children who had remained in institutions (less emotional care) compared to those who had been fostered (more emotional care) (2)

Question 64

What is emotional damage (2)

Answer 64

Includes affectionless psychopathy, this is the inability to experience guilt or strong emotion for others (1)
This prevents the person developing normal relationships and is associated with criminality. Affectionless psychopaths also lack remorse (cannot appreciate the feelings of victims) (2)

Question 65

What is reactive attachment disorder (2)

Answer 65

An extreme lack of sensitive responsiveness from a parent in early life can lead to a child growing up unable to trust or love others (1)
They become isolated and very selfish and unable to understand the needs of others can become sociopathic without a conscience, they have a lack of remorse (2)

Question 66

What is disinhibited attachment (2)

Answer 66

A condition in which children select attachment figures indiscriminately and behave in an overly familiar fashion with complete stranger, for example, being friendly and affectionate. This is unusual behaviour as usually, young children would show signs of stranger anxiety (1)

It seems to be caused by long periods of institutional care in early life, children may adapt to having multiple caregivers (all of whom are not seen enough to form secure attachment) during the sensitive period for attachment formation

Institutionalised children often have other behavioural disorders too including attention seeking (Zeenah et al) (2)

Question 67

What is cognitive impairment

Answer 67

Is the delay in intellectual development (1) , an individual would have low IQ and problems with concentration (Rutter et al), moreover they may have difficulty in learning new concepts and behaviours (2)

Question 68

Who conducted the Romanian orphan studies

Answer 68

Rutter et al

Question 69

What was the aim of the Romanian orphan studies : effect on institutionalisation

Answer 69

To investigate whether loving and nurturing care could overturn the effects of institutionalisation the children suffered with in Romanian orphanages

Question 70

What was the procedure of the Romanian orphan studies : effect on institutionalisation

Answer 70

Longitudinal study which began in 1998. Physical, emotional and cognitive development was assessed at age 46,11 and 15

The age of adoption being he naturally occurring independent variable and the dependent variable was the children’s development (cognitive and emotional)

Question 71

What was the sample of the Romanian orphan studies : effect on institutionalisation

Answer 71

111 Romanian orphans who were adopted into British families

Question 72

How many groups did Rutter study

Answer 72

1.Adopted before the age of 6 months
2. Adopted between 6 months and 2 years
3. Adopted after the age of two (late adoptees)

The Romanian orphans were compared to a control group of 52 British adopted children

Question 73

What were the findings of the Romanian orphan studies : effect on institutionalisation

Answer 73

At initial assessment (when they arrived in the UK - 50% of the Romanian children showed signs of cognitive impairment and were severely undernourished

By the age of 4 years the children were making very good recoveries, however those adopted later (older than 2 years) had a much higher level of disinhibited attachment. On the other hand, orphans adopted before 6 months were doing as well as the British adopted children (control)

At the age of 11,the mean IQ for those adopted later (after 2 years) was lower than those adopted earlier (before the age of 6 months, showing cognitive impairment

Those adopted before the age of 6 months can be overcome by sensitive. nurturing care, more so if the adoption takes place earlier

Question 74

What does Bolwby suggest about the internal working model

Answer 74

Argues the child forms a ‘mental representation’ (schema) of their early attachment relationship with heir primary caregiver .

This acts as a model for what relationships are like and future relationships will mirror them.

If the child is raised by a loving primary caregiver who responds to their needs they are likely to have a secure attachment and view relationships as positive (positive internal working model) and have more successful later relationships

However, if their first relationship is with a caregiver who is unresponsive to their needs they are more likely to have insecure attachment and more problems in forming relationships (negative internal working model) and may not behave appropriately when hey are in them e.g arguing more or being too controlling

This mental representation of early attachment influences the nature of all their later childhood and adult relationships but also their relationships with their own children - attachment types are passed through generations

Question 75

What is the influence of the internal working model on childhood relationships

Answer 75

Attachment type is linked to the quality of peer relationships in later childhood. If a child has a secure attachment to their primary caregiver, they are more likely to have better quality relationships with heir peers. However if they have an insecure attachment to their primary caregiver, they are more likely to have difficulties in making friends.

Smith et al (1998) found that this early attachment could predict bullying behaviour with insecure-avoidant children being most likely to be victims of bullying and insecure-resistant child being most likely to be the bully.

Question 76

What was the influence of the internal working model on adult romantic relationships

Answer 76

Research has shown that the internal working model can also influence adult relationships. Hazen and Shaver created a questionnaire (The Love Quiz) which was printed in newspapers to study a person’s adult attachment and their attachment in ealry childhood

They found

56% of ppts were securely attached as children - they were most likely to have positive and longer lasting romantic relationships with partners they could trust.

25% were seen as insecure-avoidant children and these people reported more feelings of jealously and feared intimacy (closeness)

Finally 19% were classified as insecure-resistant as children and these people fear being abandoned and can put too much pressure on their partner

They concluded that the patterns of attachment behaviour are reflected - in adult romantic relationships

Question 77

What is the influence of the internal working model on relationships with own children

Answer 77

An internal working model affects the ability to form a good relationship with their own children. People base their parenting style on their internal working model, so attachment tends to be passed through family generations

Bailey et al (2007) found that mothers tended to have the same attachment style with their child as they did with their own mother.