psychology unit 2 exam Flashcards

Question

scientific procedures act

Answer 1

- re use of animals states that an animal cannot be reused for a second procedure if the second procedure is more painful than the first procedure. If an animas is going to be reused then the vet has to declare that the animal is healthy enough to be reused. - if an animal has to be killed as part of the procedure it can only be done if the establishement has a license to kill the animals. One condition of having the license is that it should be done as humanely as possible and they must be sedated before the are killed. - where possible animals should be replaced with suitable alternatives, if replacement is not possible , then researcher should reduce to a minimum number of protected animals, like Skinner used only 8 pigeons even if there is far more pigeons in the world.

Answer 2

- Freud used free association where the cliets would talk about whatever they wanted in the hope something from the unconscious mind would reveal itself. - the patient would lie on a couch, usually where they cannot see the psychoanalyst's reactions to what they are saying. - the patients are then asked to talk about their early memories, with little or no input from the psychoanalyst. - this allows the patient to say things the may not say if asked direct questions as the unconscious would not be as closely monitoring what was said. - by using free association we can reveal the root cause of client's issues, the issues can be resolved and the client can be cured. - client has to gain trust into their therapist in order to be comfortable to talk about their past relationships. - phychoanalasys tends to deal with the root cause of the issue or identify it, but it only works if patient is motivated - Freud would use dream analysis to find the unconscious meaning behind symbols in the clients dreams.

Answer 3

- Transference in therapy is the act of the client unknowingly transferring feelings about someone from their past onto the therapist. Freud and Breuer described transference as the deep, intense and uncounscious feeling that develop in therapeutic relationships with patients.

Answer 4

- emotional reaction or response that a therapist may have towards a client during a therapy session. It refers to the therapist's unconscious feelings and thoughts that are triggered by the client's behavior, which are based on the therapist's own past experiences, biases, and unresolved issues.

Answer 5

- aims to stimulate sunlight for those who suffer from SAD - patients sit under a light box for 30 to 60 minutes each day, preferably in the morning. - the stronger the light from the light box the less time the patient has to spend under it. - the light will decrease the levels of the patients melatonin so they should feel less tired and more motivated during the day. - some light boxes use a dawn stimulator which gradually increases the light in the morning, - SAD is the type of depression that is related to changes in seasons and what is suggested is light therapy.

Answer 6

- Siffre (1975) had no external cues when he was in a cave for 6 months and his biological rhythm extended to 25 hours, showing that external zeitgebers, such as daylight, play a role in regulating our 24-hour sleep wake cycle giving the explanation credibility. - Skene and Arendt (2007) found that most blind people who have some light perception have normal circadian rhythms unlike those without any light perception, showing how external zietgebers regulate our circadian rhythms which includes the sleep wake cycle suggesting it is a plausible explanation.

Answer 7

- Lam (2016) found that light therapy was more effective for threating depression then giving SSRI's, therefore it can be deemed to be an effective therapy. - light therapy may be a better treatment for those who suffer from side effects from taking SSRI's as it has fewer side effects, so it is very effective in these cases. - Reeves (2012) found that self report scores for depression fell after one session of light therapy showing that that it does work. - It does depend on a type of a box being used how effective the treatment is, as dawn stimulators have been found to be less effective then a light box, therefore not all light therapies are effective. - Light therapy may only work short term, and it may not prevent SAD from reoccuring in the future so it does not cure it. It is not effective if you want to cure SAD. - Light boxes can be unsafe to use if the patient has pre existing conditions, such as taking a medicine for rheumatoid arthritis, so it may not be an effective and suitable therapy for everyone.

Answer 8

- all female sample, small sample of only 14 reduces the overall population validity and generalizability, as it did not include multiple genders - ecological validity is lowered because the task is unnatural, asking people to comment on how they may feel based on a fictitious scenario will never be entirely accurate, rather aggression occurs in real life (physically)

Answer 9

- the methodology was a repeated measures design and the same procedure remained consistent for each condition and as procedure was so standardized this is replicable. - the anonymous survey monkey reduced the risk of Social Desirability, people giving false answers because they wish to be liked, also due to being online, therefore it increases internal validity as people feel they can be honest. - all participants were told this was entirely confidental, no names would ever be asked. All participants were 16 or over as due to BPS code of conduct.

Answer 10

- increase sample size to involve multi genders, both in and out of school, overall increase in population validity. - next time we would also include the native language translation of the scenarios to all participants in the sample, to reduce any misunderstandings and increase internal validity.

Answer 11

to discover if there is a positive correlation between height and aggression

Answer 12

- our class created an online survey, where we asked participants in school to complete our survey. All participants were 16 and over and only in our school *Participants were obtained through opportunity sampling online, the survey was posted online and participants could choose to complete if they wanted to, in this sense it is also volunteer sampling but only participants in school took part *Participants were instructed to only give their gender, height in cm and instructed to terminate if under 16 *Participants were asked to rate how aggressive they would feel based on 5 scenarios, such as ‘’imagine you are waiting in line for a ticket and someone skips you’’ participants rated aggression on a 1 to 5 scale, with 1 being the lowest score *Once all surveys were sent back, our class began to add up all scores from each participant, creating a mean, median, mode and range for qualitative data set - We then carried out a Spearman’s Rho analysis to establish if a significant correlation was found, with a value equal to or greater than the critical value

Answer 13

The results indicated that taller people were in fact more aggressive. Anyone over 168cm on average scored 3 or more out of 5, conversely, anyone under 168cm scored on average of under 3, with closer to 1 being the mean score *We used a Spearman’s Rho calculation. Our total of 0,5923 is greater than the critical value conclusion: We can now accept our alternative hypothesis of taller people will in fact be more aggressive and reject our null hypothesis

Answer 14

- to investigate whether fear could be conditioned in a young baby aged from 9 to 11 moths old and whether the fear response, if one was conditioned, would transfer to similar objects.

Answer 15

- study was carried out on a healthy, emotionally stable child called Albert, who was 9 months old at the start of the study. Albert was presented with a white rat, rabbit, dog, monkey, masks with and without hair and burning newspaper. He did not show any fear towards these objects. - Afterwards, Albert was exposed to a hammer hitting a steel bar, causing him to startle and the third time it made him cry. (8months 26 days) - Albert was presented with a white rat and just as his hand touched the rat the metal bar was hit by the hammer. This was done the second time and he began to jump violently and to whimper. (11months 3 days) - The rat was presented to Albert with no sound. Albert was presented with blocks after the rat was taken away with which he played. The rat was presented and the sound made and Albert was startled and fell over. (11months 10 days) - Albert was shown the rat on its own two times, he played with the blocks between each presentation. Albert was then shown the rabbit on his own, followed by the dog, cotton wool, Watson head and Santa Claus mask. Block were given to Albert after each item for him to play with and calm him down. (11moths 15 days) - Albert was presented with the rat alone, and then the rat was placed on his hand and then the steel bar was hit. Rat was presented 2 more times, following with the rabbit by its own. After that he was given blocks to play with then the rabbit was presented again, but when Albert wanted to touch him the steel bar was hit by the hammer and then the rabbit was presented by its own. The same procedure was carried out with the dog. (11moths 20 days) - On the same day Albert was taken to a well-lit lecture room where he was presented with the rat alone, the rabbit alone, the dog alone, then the rat a second time followed by the rat and the loud noise. Albert was then shown the rat on its own twice followed by the rabbit and the dog. - Albert was presented with the Santa Claus mask followed by the fur coat, the rat, the rabbit and the dog, with blocks being given to Albert between the presentations of each object. (1 year 21 days)

Answer 16

At 11 months and 10 days Albert was scared of the rat, removing his hand when the rat touched it. Albert’s fear generalised onto other objects such as a white rabbit and a dog.

Answer 17

- it was concluced that emotional transfer does take place and that conditioned fears can generalise to other similar objects.

Answer 18

- The experiment is high in reliability, as Watson and Rayner used standardized procedure, showing the same objects and orders of them, the experiment was also filmed and done in the laboratory setting therefore it is easy to replicate. - control of extraneous variables such as room location or lighting in the room to estamblish cause and effect, and it was strengthened as Little Albert had the same reaction in various locations despite the changes in the environment which increases internal validity. - Watson and Rayner gathered objective data, for example whether Little Albert cried or not, and this means the study is reliable as they did not have to interpret the data.

Answer 19

- Experiment cannot be generalized to girls or anyone outside of USA as only one boy was used in the experiment, therefore it has low population validity and results cannot be represented to wider population. - There was no control group to compare against the reactions of little Albert, which makes it difficult to determine if the results were due to the conditioning or other factors, such as pre-existing fears, and measuring fear is subjective as it depends on person, therefore validity of results are decreased. -It would be unethical to put a baby through the distress Little Albert went through therefore it is not possible to replicate the study to check the reliability of the findings. - The use of a laboratory affects the ecological validity of the studies as the behaviour seen in the laboratory may not be the participants’ natural behaviour.

Answer 20

-Classical conditioning is the process by which new reflexes are learnt - Learning through associations such as learning to associate what was a neutral stimulus such as a bell (neutral) can become a conditioned stimulus, such as causing salivation (conditioned) when paired with food to cause an association - Classical behaviour explains automatic and reflex responses like salivation - Classical conditioning can be seen in the real world though food aversion –such as when one has food poisoning and their brain learns to associate this food with being sick- this is known as ´´one time learning´´ - Classical conditioning involves unconscious learning and non voluntary learning (automatic) behaviours we don´t have to think about - Little Albert was conditioned to have a reflex of a phobia, after pairing a neutral stimulus of a white rat with a conditioned stimulus of a loud noise until eventually he had a conditioned response of a phobia – crying, crawling away from the object

Answer 21

- is when a stimulus that is similar to the conditioned stimulus will produce the conditioned response. The more similar the stimulus is to the conditioned stimulus the stronger the response will be.

Answer 22

- Extinction is when the conditioned stimulus no longer causes a conditioned response. It occurs when the conditioned stimulus has not been paired with the unconditioned stimulus for some time.

Answer 23

- involves a change in behaviour that occurs with only one powerful experience and the association is usually a result of a single experience (unpleasent) and for example the practical food will be avoided in the future.

Answer 24

- classical conditioning only explains how we learn new reflexes, it does not explain how we learn new voluntary behaviour, unlike operant conditioning which explains how reinforcement teach us new voluntary behaviours, therefore reducing the validity of it as an explanation of learning. - classical conditioning focuses on nurture and ignores other explanations for behaviour such as biological explanations, therefore the theory may not be a complete explanation of human behaviours such as aggression which reduces its credibility. - Pavlov’s study (1927) was on dogs, so classical conditioning may not be a good explanation of human behaviour as humans are more complex than dogs.

Answer 25

- studies that have supported classical conditioning are often laboratory experiments and are considered to be scientific as they take place in controlled conditions and the data comes from objective, observable behaviour. - Ivan Pavlov did a study into dogs which supports classical conditioning as the automatic respond of the dogs became a reflex, when the dogs heard the sound of the bell they knew they were about to get food and they started salaving as an conditioned response. Increases credibility of classical conditioning.

Answer 26

- type of depression that is related to changes in seasons, begins and ends about the same time every year. - symptoms start in fall and countinue into winter moths, changing the mood, energy, sleep, increase appetite and motivation. - one suggestion is that absence of light increases melatonin and what is suggested is light therapy. - we usually get serotonin from sun and as in winter there is lack of sun there is also lack of vitamin D, and serotonin is implicated in mood which then will change. - SCN detects less light putside and therefore produces more melatonin causing person to feel drowsy and sleepy. - the reduction of daylight in the winter may cause disruption to circadian rhythms and so affect the sleep wake cycle.

Answer 27

- Mahon found that people with SAD could not approprietly regulate their serotonin transporters in the brain during winter moths. - Mahon used a PET scan to measure serotonin transporters in patients with SAD and healthy controls. PET scans are scientific and testable, which increases the validity of results. - The fact that people who live 30 degrees either side of the equator rarely get SAD does support the idea that it is a disorder that is affected by light levels.

Answer 28

children develop through 5 stages each stage there is a focus of pleasure, and is associated with a particular conflict that has to be resolved in order for the person to successfully advanced to the next stage. - oral, anal, phallic, latent, genital

Answer 29

0-1year erogenous zone: mouth - children derive pleasure from oral activities, including sucking and tasting. They like to put things in their mouth.

Answer 30

1-3years erogenous zone: bowel and bladder control - main focus of the anal phase was controlling bladder and bowel movements. The major conflict at this stage is toilet training, the child needs to learn how to control their body’s needs. Developing this control leads to a sense of accomplishment and independence. - Anal retentive personality, being very clean and want everything to have a order (obsessed) - Anal expulsive personality, having destructive personality and are messier and wasteful.

Answer 31

3-6years erogenous zone: genitals - They are more aware of their anatomical sex differences, which leads to conflict between erotic attraction, jealousy and fear. - Freud called this the Oedipus complex for boys and Electra complex for girls. Boys are more attached to their mother while girls are more attached to their father

Answer 32

6-puberty libido (sexual desire) inactive -The child soon realises that sexual feelings towards their parents is not welcomed so they will have to supress their sexual desires. - During this stage the libido (sexual drive) is dormant. Most sexual impulses and sexual energy is in this stage and it might be seen in school work, hobbies and friendships. Children spend more time and interact mostly with same sex peers - Not being able to form romantic relationships.

Answer 33

puberty-death maturing sexual interest - It is a time of adolescent sexual experimentation, it is shown in your twenties when settling down to one to one relationship. - Sexual instinct is directed to heterosexual pleasure instead of self pleasure where we can see it in Phallic phase. - Fixation on this stage may cause you to be sexually perverted.

Answer 34

Freud’s theory is based on unconscious processes that we are not aware of , making it unscientific as unconscious processes are hard to measure objectively.

Answer 35

Freud’s case study of Little Hans showed that Little Hans was going through the phallic stage, as his fear of horses was really a fear of his father giving the theory credibility.

Answer 36

Oxytocin is a hormone released by the Pituitary Gland that allows us to feel bonds and create trust between people. - Cortisol is produced in the Adrenal Glands and person’s body will fill with Cortisol when it becomes stressed. - People with low level of Cortisol have an low nervous system so in order to increase it they become aggressive. - Testosterone is the male sex hormone which comes from testis and it increases from birth and can explain inter male fighting

Answer 37

- Lane found that more oxytocin did lead to an increase in trustworthiness, but they did not study whether lack of the hormone caused aggression so it may not be a factor in aggressive behaviour. - Burnett found that boys who had lower levels of cortisol in their saliva were 3 times more aggressive than boys with higher level of cortisol, therefore cortisol does play a role in aggressive behaviour. - Hawke castrated sex offenders. Following castration of the testis they were less aggressive and also had a reduced sex drive, which indicates that testosterone has an impact on how aggressive our behaviour is. - Motelica castrated male rodents and as a result rodents were far less aggressive in comparison to rodents who still had testicles. When testosterone was injected back into them, they became aggressive again, meaning testosterone has a role in aggression. - Most of the studies are animal studies which are not representative of the human population as we have more complex brain structure, therefore it is not generalizable. - Overall, hormones do have an important role in aggression and aggressive behaviour, however, it does ignore other factors such as social factors which can be explained by social learning theory as an explanation of aggressive behaviour.

Answer 38

They aimed to find out if murderers pleading not guilty due to reasons of insanity had brain dysfunction in the prefrontal cortex

Answer 39

- 2 groups of 41, 39 males and 2 females in each group - All participants were off medications for 2 weeks prior to the PET scan. - they were all tested in order to try to plead NGRI (not guilty by reason of insanity) in uni in California each was injected with the glucose tracer and then performed the Continuous Performance Task (CPT) for 31 minutes and after this PET scan was carried out. - Raine used other experimental controls, the participants were allowed to practise the CPT ten minutes before the glucose tracer was injected to make sure they were all equally familiar with it. - the PET scan was broken down into digital slices and boxes, enabling Raine to measure the relative amount of tracer (glucose) present in the brains 4 cortical regions (the lobes on the outside of the brain) and the 4 sub cortical regions.

Answer 40

PET scan 1 - limbic system - there was also an imbalance of activity between the left and right hemispheres in the limbic system. There was less activity on the left and more on the right in the amygdala and MTL/hippocampus, more activity on the right side of the thalamus. These are areas associated with aggressions in animals. PET scan 2 - pre frontal cortex and lobes - all NGRI had less activity in the pre frontal cortex (compared to non killers), the pre frontal cortex controls rational thinking, self restraint and memory - NGRI also had less activity in the parietal lobe, which is responsible for abstract thinking such as morality and justice

Answer 41

- Raine used 82 participants. This is a large sample which is likely to be representative of a murder population of criminals. - PET scan was used to measure brains of NGRI's , this is a scientific and reliable method which can be consistently used to measure brains. All participants used CPT which adds to reliability. - Participants who have their brains scanned can be helped with medication, school children may be detected which may reduce overall criminality in society. - Raine made sure that participants were 2 weeks prior to the PET scan off the medications which makes the results more valid as medications were not able to affect them in any way. - Due to the use of objective data from the PET scans the results can be said to be reliable as they accurately stated which areas of the brain were more active.

Answer 42

- the CPT used by Raine could be critized for being artificial and the participants were all doing an unusual task and in unusual state of mind when PET scan was carried out and this lowers the ecological validity. - as a natural experiment this study cannot show cause and effect. For example, the NGRI's might have developed ttheir brain deficits after the killing, because of the stress of the event, their arrest and coming to trial. - Schizophrenic patients had to have their lawyer consent for them, as they are not fully able to do so. This is because they can be delusional and not understand reality, therefore it can raise some ethical questions. - Raine et al. (1997) only used murderers who pleaded guilty by reasons on insanity as his experimental group, this limits the generalisability of the results as there may not be the same brain activity in criminals who committed murder but did not plead insanity

Answer 43

- tells us that behaviour is based on A-B-C, so If you want to change behaviour, you must change the antecedents (what has already happened) or the consequences. It is much easier to change the consequences - Operant conditioning is a type of learning in which behaviors are shaped by the consequences that follow them.

Answer 44

when the desired behaviour is rewarded. This makes it more likely to be repeated. 1. positive - it rewards the desired behaviour by adding something pleasant 2. negative - it rewards the desired behaviour by removing something unpleasant 3. primary - is a reward for a behaviour that satisfies a basic need such as food, sex… 4. which is a reward we have learned to value, money/salary

Answer 45

when undesirable behaviour produces unpleasant consequences. 1. positive - which punishes the undesirable behaviour by adding something unpleasant, detention/more work 2. negative - which punishes by removing something pleasant, being grounded, deducting money, xbox…

Answer 46

- Operant conditioning says that if an aggressive behaviour is reinforced then that behaviour will be repeated. - Aggressive behaviour may be positively reinforced as it can enable the aggressor to get something they want. - Negative reinforcement may also reinforce aggressive behaviour if something undesirable is avoided

Answer 47

- Operant conditioning cannot explain how people who are not rewarded for being aggressive remain aggressive, so it is not a suitable explanation.

Answer 48

- Whitaker and Bushman (2012) support the fact that being reinforced makes people more aggressive, as participants who were rewarded for playing a violent video game were more accurate when shooting a mannequin than those who had no reward for playing a shooting game. - Operant conditioning has been used to successfully train animals for a variety of purposes, such as police work, therapy, and entertainment. It can also be applied to human behavior, such as increasing exercise or reducing drug use.

Answer 49

- presence of MAOA gene means that a person does not metabolise seratonin effectively. Meaning they have lower levels of it which can cause them to fight and be aggressive. - The MAOA gene is thought to cause an increase in aggression as it causes low levels of the MAOA enzyme. - A lack of the MAOA enzyme means that the breakdown of neurotransmitters such as dopamine is affected, so leading to aggression. - Having an extra Y chromosome, so being XYY, is thought to increase aggression. - Having the MAOA gene means that neurotransmitters are not functioning normally so someone is unable to control their impulses. - This model shows that if someone has a low variation of MAOA L gene and has an adverse or traumatic experience in childhood, coupled with a hyperactive amygdala and PFC then they are much more likely to become involved in aggression

Answer 50

- Beaver et al. (2014) found that people who had the MAOA gene were more likely to have stabbed or shot someone so it can be said that the MAOA gene is responsible for extremely aggressive behaviour. - Brendgen discovered that MZ had a higher concordance rate of physical aggression. He also discovered that physical aggression was genetic 60% of time, but social aggression was only 20% genetic of time. - Dr Fallon discovered that children who had the MAOA L gene could not regulate Serotonin levels in the brain in the womb, would later not be able to regulate Serotonin. Low Serotonin is also responsible for an increase in aggression. - Dr Fallon also said that having the MAOA /L gene itself is not enough to increase rates of aggression, usually, a combination of damage to the brain, trauma and the gene are required - Again, too reductionist because doesn't account for social reasons such as Social Learning Theory as an explanation of aggression

Answer 51

Capafons wanted to investigate if systematic desensitisation is an effective treatment for a fear of flying.

Answer 52

- the sample consisted of 41 people who had a fear of flying. 20 were randomly put in the treatment group and the other 21 were in the control group receiving no treatment. The participants were volunteers who had responded to a media campaign. - Anxiety in relation to different flight situations (fear during flying, flying without any direct involvement) was measured using the EMV. Heart rate, muscle tension and skin temperature were also measured. - a video tape of plane trip was used which followed a person on a trip made by a plane from packing a case to touch down at the destination. Before they saw the video the patients had 3 minutes without the presence of the phobic objects and then watched the video after being told to feel as involved as possible. - patients were asked a series of questions, pre and post treatment. They were asked to rate how afraid of flying they were, if they travelled by plane if there were no alternative and what symptoms they had whilst flying. - The participants in the experimental group created a hierarchy of fear and were taught relaxation techniques when being treated, such as counting backwards or breathing. -

Answer 53

only 10% of patients who had the treatment did not have a significant reduction in their fear level concerning flying

Answer 54

- Using different methods to measure the fear of flying increases reliability as the different methods can be cross referenced with each other to see if the results correlate. - It has a standardized procedure, as same pre and post interview questions were used with all the participants and they have all received 12-15 sessions and 3 minute window for relaxation before showing the video which suggests that experiment can be replicated. - Capafons used match paired desing and he had a control of extraneous variables, he controlled the temperature in the room which is important when measuring anxiety because for example palm sweating and body temperature indicate to increase in fear, this makes his results more valid.

Answer 55

- Imagining being on a flight is not the same as actually being on a flight, so the treatment may not be effective when the participants had to go on an airplane. - Having a sample of only 20 in the treatment group limits the generalizability of the results due to the small sample size. - Having a volunteer sample limits the generalizability as volunteers tend to be the minority, so the participants may have a strong reason for overcoming their fear of flying.

Answer 56

- whether playing violent video games would lead to participants seeing themselves as less human.

Answer 57

aim to investigate the effects in a violent video game context where players were violent towards each other.

Answer 58

- The game was Mortal Kombat where player play against each other. There were 106 participants, who were aged from 17 to 34 years old. The participants were randomly assigned to one of two groups. 52 of participants played Mortal Kombat and 54 played Spin Tennis which is a non violent game. - They were asked how much they enjoyed the game and how frustrating they found the game, both on a scale of 1 to 7. - Participants then had to rate themselves on eight human Nature items and rate their opponent on the same four times. - When answering items, they had to think about their experiences whilst playing the game. Four of the items were positive, ‘’I felt that I was emotional, like I was responsive and warm’’ and four items were reversed, ‘’I felt like I lacked self restraint, like an animal’’.

Answer 59

- after controlling for the effects of frustration, enjoyableness and gender it was found that there was a significant difference between the two groups on rating of both self humanity and the humanity of other player, with those who played the non violent game perceiving both themselves and the other player as possessing more humanity.

Answer 60

aim to investigate whether playing violently against computer avatars rather than human opponents had any effect on self perceived humanity.

Answer 61

-Participants played Call of Duty 2 which another player against a computer generated avatar - There were 38 participants, who were randomly assigned to one of two conditions, playing either Call of Duty or Spin Tennis. - After they had played the game the participants were asked to rate how enjoyable and frustrating the game was, and to rate themselves and their co player on their humanness using the same items as in study 1. - They had to think about their experience of playing the game as they answered the item of humanness. The self esteem and mood of the participants were measured to ensure they did not affect the results. Mood was measured using the 20 items PANAS, and self esteem was measured using the State Self Esteem Scale.

Answer 62

There was a significant difference in the participants perception of their own humanity, with those who played the violent game seeing themselves as less human. There was no difference in the perception of the co players humanity between those who played the violent game and those who played the non violent game.

Answer 63

- Bastian had a controlled procedure as all the participants had a wireless X-box so they were using the same type of console. This means extraneous variables such as the type of gaming box did not affect the results so increasing reliability. - In both studies, video games that are commercially readily available were used, e.g. Mortal Kombat and are not designed by the researcher therefore other researchers can replicate the study using those games to see if they get the same results to check for reliability. - the study is high at internal validity because they eliminated all extraneous variables such as mood, whilst the participants completed the scale. For example, mood was accounted for using the PANAS scale, and self esteem was measured by using STATE self esteem scale. - many 17-34 year olds regularly play computer games and are exposed to violence in the media, including video games, so there is a degree of ecological validity and application to the real world, it could even explain the gun violence in the USA.

Answer 64

- as participants were only from the age range of 17-34, the sample cannot be representative of the wider range of younger and older generations that are nowadays playing video games. - All the participants were undergraduate students who took part for extra course credit, so there may have been demand characteristics as the undergraduates may have felt they needed to give the results that were expected in order to gain course credit affecting validity

Answer 65

they carry messages from the sensory receptors around the body (PNS) to the CNS via the spinal cord. long dendrites - they need them to pick up all information short axons.

Answer 66

they are found in the brain only, they allow for communication between the sensory and motor neurons. short axon and dendrites, no myelin sheath

Answer 67

they transmit impulses from the CNS (spinal cord) to skeletal and smooth muscles (PNS) and so they directly control all of our muscle movements. short dendrites, long axon

Answer 68

- to investigate to what extent social aggression can be explained by genetic factor, shared environmental factors or non shared environmental factors in comparison to physical aggression.

Answer 69

- the participants were all part of a time long study and were all pairs of twins from Canada. Same sex twins were assessed from physical resemblance at 18 months old to determine if they were MZ or DZ twins, with proportion of same sex twins also being checked using DNA. - written consent was gained from the parents before any data was collected. Peer reports and teachers ratings were also collected. - the peer reports involved all the children in a class being given photos, and the children were asked to circle the photo of the 3 children who best fit a description of behaviour. social aggression - tells others not to play with a child physical aggression - gets into fights, hits bites kicks - teachers had to rate the social and physical aggression of the twins in their class by using the preschool social behaviour scale and the direct and indirect aggression scale. - social aggression scale measured the extent the teachers rated the children as trying to make others dislike a child, and spreading nasty rumors about another child. - physical aggression was measured by the extent teachers thought the children got into fights, hit bit or kicked others.

Answer 70

When teachers rated physical aggression the genetic influence was at 63% and peers rated it as 54%. The teachers rated social aggression at 20% influenced by genetics which is a lot lower than the rating for physical aggression.

Answer 71

- physical aggression is influenced by mixture of genetic and environmental factors that were not shared between twins. - environmental factors have greater influence on social aggression.

Answer 72

- used a large sample (234 twin pairs), so unusual children with very high or low levels of aggression out to be averaged out by the size of data, therefore sample is representative. - Brendgen used estamblished questionnaires to measure aggression, these can easily be replicated making the study reliable. There was a strong correlation between teacher and peer rating, suggesting the scores are reliable. - The study avoids taking a reductionist view of human behaviour, it looks at genetics but also at environmental factors. It links in with the findings about aggression by Bandura, who claims it is learned and Raine who suggests it is due to brain structure.

Answer 73

- the allocation of zygocity (DZ and MZ) was based largerly on their appearance and it wasn't 100% reliable. It is possible that there were DZ twins in the MZ condition.

Answer 74

- a biological rhythm can be defined as any change in a biological activity that repeats periodically. - these rhythms are most often synchronised with daily, monthly or annual cyclial changes in the environment.

Answer 75

- anything which tends to happen just once a day is known as circadian rhythm for example sleeping and waking up. - Siffre studied the sleep cycle by living in a cave for 7 months, the results were that his 24h internal clock changed closer to a 25h cycle. - this was thought to be the effect of reducing external Zeitgebers of time and light cues from the external environment. - circadian rhythms co ordinate with a number of other bodily processes, these include heart rate, digestion and hormone levels. - this in turn has an effect on the action of drugs on the body and how well they are absorved and distributed.

Answer 76

- Knutsson said that shift workers are also prone to poor health and this might be due to stress of the shift in their circadian rhythm. Because they are getting poor quality sleep - Folkard, studied a group of people of 12 who lived in a cave for 3 weeks.. they had go to bed when the clock said 11:45pm and to get up at 7:45am. Over the cause of study researcher gradually speeded up the clock so 24h was reduced to 22h. It was found that none of the participants adjusted well to the new regime and this would suggest the existance of strong free running circadian rhythms that cannot easily be overriden by changes in the external environment. .

Answer 77

to investigate what would happen to poeple's circadian rhythms if they were cut off from all zeitgebers and had to rely on their endogenous pacemakers to tell them when to eat and sleep.

Answer 78

- he spent over 6 months living in cave in Texas, with no light and anything to tell him what time it was. - his biological clock was on free run, he followed his body inclications, eating and sleeping whenever he chose with no fixed timetable. - he was wired up so that some of his body functions could be recorded, he had a telephone link to the outside world and was monitored by video camera.

Answer 79

- Siffre had a fairly inbalanced sleep-wake pattern at first, but it settled down to a pattern that averaged just over 25h instead on 24h.

Answer 80

- destroyed SCN (superchiasmatic nucleus) in the brains of 30 chipmunks. - he returned them to their natural habitat and observed them for 80 days. - sleep/wake cycle disappeared and significant number had been killed by the predators probably because they were awake outside when they should normally be asleep.

Answer 81

- they last longer than 24h, it can be weekly, monthly or annual. MENSTRUAL CYCLE: - PMS which occur a few days prior to te onset bleeding and is characterised by loss of appetite, stress, iritability and poor concentration. - the synchronisation of menstrual periods is thought to be based on the uncounscious chemical sent of PHEROMONES, females can unconsciously detect the scent of periods in other females, so their menstrual cycle occurs at the same time. - oestrogen is a female sex hormone that helps females develop their features such as breasts. - progesterone is a hormone that helps our uterus lining - average period is every 28 days - ovulation occurs roughly halfway through the cycle and oestrogen levels peak for 16-32 hours. (time when we are most likely to get pregnant) - The pituitary gland releases FSH to stimulate the ovaries to produce eggs. - The hormone oestrogen is at its lowest on the first day of the menstrual cycle, and gradually increases during the cycle as the eggs mature. - If the egg is not fertilised the levels of oestrogen and progesterone decline, so leading to the lining in the womb being shed.

Answer 82

- Wilson reviewed several studies on the effect of infradian rhythms on the menstrual cycle, and found that there was no effect once the problems with the studies had been taken into account. - Weller and Weller found that there was no synchronisation in the menstrual cycle of a team female basketball players, neither between best friends, and they all train together and sweat a lot. - McClintock and Stern found that 68% of 29 women did have a synchronised menstrual cycle and that their body has responded to the swear and pheromones. - The changes in hormones throughout the menstrual cycle can be used in trials to explain why women may have attacked other people so the explanation can be applied to everyday life.

Answer 83

- to investigate factors affecting sleep in high school students. It aimed to investigate the effects of life style factors on the quality of sleep in high school students, in order to verify that these two are associated. - sample contained 989 participants who were students aged from 14-24 from Brazil and the study was longitudinal. - students answered questionnaires, and there was a 9 month gap between the 1st and 2nd questionnaire. - sleep quality was measured by the questions such as ,,How often do you think you sleep well?'' , always and almost always were counted as positive answeres while sometimes almost never and never were counted as negative answeres. - sleep duration was measured by the questions such as ,,How many hours on average, do you sleep per day'', 8 or more was counted as enough sleep duration and anything lower than that was counted as not enough. - lifestyle factors were measured through the number of times as student exercised, amount of time spend watching tv and how many soft drink and alcohol was consumed. - student who exercised, often ate snack and watched lots of tv were less likely to report short sleep duration. - 5/10 had poor sleep quality (which was associated to physical activity) , 8/10 not enough sleep and these figures didn't change in the second questionnaire.

Answer 84

- the study has a large sample, 989 students which is likely to be representative of many teenagers in Brazil, however it only had students from Brazil, therefore it cannot be generalized to teenagers across the world with different cultures. - we can presume that there mostly was infromed consent from all participant who were over the age of 16 and their data was already being collected by an official government report ,,Good health''. Handing out a questionnaire that is voluntary is a ethical way to obtain data easily while student were at school or college. - this case is with self report questionnnaires, therefore there is a problem with honesty. Participants may not answer honestly and therefore the results might be invalid, this could be because of the social desirability where a participants report what they think psychologyst may want to see or hear. - same questionnaire was used first and second time, which indicates a standardized procedure and consistency which makes it reliable. - there is a possibility of order affects as its a repeated measure design. They may get tired/bored or guess the aim of the study which would lead to demand characteristics and therefore impact validity of the results.

Answer 85

- Skinner conducted his research on a group of hungry pigeons whose body weight had been reduced to 75% of their normal weight when well fed. - for a few minutes each day, a mechanism fed the birds at regular intervals. The food dispenser would swing in for 5 seconds to allow birds to feed. - what observes found, showed the birds developing superstitious behaviou, believing that by acting in a particular way or commiting a certain action, food would arrive. - by the end of the study 3/4 of the birds had become superstitious. The schedules of reinforcement were changed and the birds began imitating the first behaviour they were doing when they got fed the first time. - the bird learned to turn anti clockwise and appeared to believe that this would mean being fed. - conclusion drawn are that animals behaviour like humans can be reinforced and repeated by positive reinforcement, receiving food meant they continued to perform actions they first performed when getting food initially.

Answer 86

- the Scientific Procedures Act states that the minimal number of animals should be used in any study testing on animals. Skinners used only 8 pigeons, which is a small number for the amount of pigeons on the planet, meaning he kept numbers reduced. - the procedure was standardized as all birds were kept in similar sized cages, the food ''hopper'' arrived every 15s and stayed with food for 5 seconds, this was consistent and reliably applied to each bird on repeat. - birds were kept starving for some time, resulting in a loss of 25% of the overall body weight expected for them. This could be a weakness in terms of reducing harm to pigeons and potential distress (code of animal ethics) - humans have far higher cognitive functioning which means that while the results can be somewhat applied to humans, it is not a complete explanation of voluntary behaviour, as humans are motivated by many other complex factors while pigeons are motivated mostly by food. -

Answer 87

- based on the idea that past relationships with significant others affect present relationships. - relationships from our childhood unconsciously form our standards about relationships in the present. - object relations therapy aims to bring these unconscious ideas about relationships into the conscious so the client can gain an insight into their current behaviour. - to do this the therapist needs to gain the trust of the client and show that they are listening so the client feels safe talking about their past relationships. - may not be affective for some disorders such as depression where clients may not be motivated to engage with the therapist, therefore a drug treatment might be better as the client does not need to talk about their past relationships in order for treatment to be effective.

Answer 88

- Hans was displaying Oedipus complex which is when a boy develops an unconscious infatuation towards his mother. - Little hand was a 5 ear old boy with phobia of horses. The primary aim was to treat his phobia. - Secondary aim was to explore what factors might have led to the phobia in the first place, and what factors led to its remission. - From around 3 years old, Hans showed an interest in widdlers, both his own penis and of other males, including animals. He was scared that his dad would castrate him because of his feelings towards his mother. - Freud linked Hans phobia of horses with his dad, as he was relating it with horses with black hornesses over the nose which represented mustache from his father. - Freud suggested Hans resolved this conflict as he fantasized himself with a big penis and married to his mother. This allows Hans to overcome his castration anxiety and identify with his father.

Answer 89

- not generalizable, as it is an individual study done on only one baby boy therefore cannot be representative for any females. - not reliable as it lacks standardized procedure, not repeated and compared to other young boys in phallic stage, the communication was done over letters and the observation was not consistent. All of these points lower reliability. - the study lacks validity as parents of little Hans, especially his dad was a fan of Freud, therefore the study is biased. Also Freud only observed Han once therefore results might be invalid.

Answer 90

- Bandura conducted a controlled experiment study to investigate if social behaviours (for example aggression) can be acquired by observation and imitation. - the researcher pre tested the children for how aggressive they were by observing the children in nursery. - matched pairs design was used - to test inter rater reliability of the observes, 51 of the children were rated by 2 observers independently and rating were compared. - 12 boys and 12 girls watched a video where parents (role models) were behaving aggressuve towards the doll, and all of the children copied the same behaviour (same thing happened with the kids who watched the non aggressive video) - last 12 girls and 12 boys were not exposed to the model

Answer 91

- situation is highly controlled and it is not normal for children to be left alone with strangers in this way, therefore it lacks ecological validity. - high reliability because it has standardized procedure, allowing other researches to repeat it. - the study is experiment using a matched pair design. This means that the researchers controlled for the childs level of aggression in the different groups. - ethical concern is the undue stress or harm caused to children by watching adults act in violent matter, it might leave a long term effect on the children.

Answer 92

AIM: to discover if there is a link between gender and age and road rage specifically driving speed. METHOD: covert observation, we did not tell those driver that we were watching them PROCEDURE: we observed and tallied on a frequency chart, every time each of the behavioiurs were observed from the quantitaive questins such as ,,how many times do you beep the horn'' and qualitative questions such as ''why are you speeding'' RESULTS: no significant difference between speed and gender, although women were more likely to have less road rage

Answer 93

- we deceived our participants by not telling them that we were watching them while driving, however we did debrief them at the end. - generalizability was low due to only having 20 participants and unequal men and women (9) and (11) - strength was that we always used the same way to collect data, i.e. frequency chart of behaviours and also we analyzed the qualitative data using thematic analysis which allowed us to see a theme that women were less likely to speed bev+cause they felt they had to be careful on the road. - high ecological validity as life like setting and lower demand characteristics as they didnt know they were part of the study.

Answer 94

- increase sample size, make equal gender ration and include people out of our school community to increase population validity - use of drivers can to ensure no behaviour was missed therefore validity would be increase.

Answer 95

- as each study is done on one individual it is hard to generalise the results to everyone due to each person being unique. - a lot of detailed, in depth data would be gathered from free association giving greater understanding of the clients issue - by using all these methods to reveal the root cause of a clients issues the issues can be resolved so the client is cured, unlike other therapies that deal with the behaviour and not the cause of it such as systematic desensitization. - Freud theories are not scientific in nature and cannot be tested in terms of testability, we cannot locate the unconsious mind on the brain scan. - the use of free association can take years before a patient is relaxed enough to say something they didntbrain fun mean to. Therefore if patient needs to get over a phobia quickly other therapy such as sistematic desensitization might be more effective.

Answer 96

- Phineas Gage showed that damage to the brain due to a head injury can lead to an increase in aggression. Showing it has validity. - someone might be positively reinforced and satisfied with their behaviour, therefore not only a brain damage can cause aggression reducing the validity of it as an explanation

Answer 97

- reductionist as it ignores the effect of the environment on our behaviour, not a complete explanation of human behaviour.

Answer 98

Psychologists use CAT scans to detect whether there are any abnormalities in the brain that may be causing a specific behaviour such as aggression (1). CAT scans pass multiple Xrays through the brain which are then constructed into a 3D image of the brain by a computer (1).

Answer 99

CAT scans give objective data as the computer forms an image from the scan (1), so increasing the reliability of the results from the CAT scan as the results are not subjective (1).

Answer 100

CAT scans emit radiation which means they can be harmful to some people (1), therefore they may cause harm to some people such as the foetus if a woman does not know she is pregnant (1).

Answer 101

active neurons use glucose as fuel. and as a part of the scan a glucose tracer is injected into the blood. When parts of brain become active, blood (which contains the tracer) is sent to deliver oxygen and it creates visible spots which are then picke up by detectors and used to create a video image of the brain while preforming a particular task.

Answer 102

- excellent at detecting how well parts of the brain are functioning. Supporting study of Raine. - the glucose tracer is not harmful to the body as body already produces glucose

Answer 103

- we can only locate generalized areas of brain called slices activity and not specific locations. - they are costly and invasive, making their use limited

Answer 104

- a patient can perform mental tasks and the area of action can be detected through blood flow from one part of the brain to another by taking pictures less than a second apart and showing where the brain lights up. - for example, when a person processes visual information, blood rushes to the back of the brain, which is where the occipital lobe is located.

Answer 105

- FMRI's make it possile to show how well even tiny parts of the brain are functioning. They can detect structural and functional problems in the brain. No injection is required and no radiation, just no metal allowed to be worn

Answer 106

- FMRI's scans are uncomfortable for patients who are vulnerbale, anxious and who find it claustrophobic. - children and adults with Alzeimer's disease usually need sedated or not be sent to sleep in order for them to stay still for around one hour, also time consuming. - Patients can be very distressed by the noise of the scan, which is the sound of many imagen being take of the brain at once.

Answer 107

The independent groups design is an experimental design whereby two groups are exposed to different experimental conditions. Usually half of the participants are assigned to the experimental group where they are exposed to a condition where the independent variable is manipulated.

Answer 108

Reduces demand characteristics: An independent samples design makes it less likely that participants will guess the hypothesis of the experiment. If participants complete the experiment twice, they might guess the purpose of the experiment, and change their behavior accordingly.

Answer 109

The independent variable is the variable that is manipulated by the experimenter. An example of an independent variable in psychology: In an experiment on the impact of sleep deprivation on test performance, sleep deprivation would be the independent variable

Answer 110

It is something that depends on other factors. For example, a test score could be a dependent variable because it could change depending on several factors such as how much you studied, how much sleep you got the night before you took the test, or even how hungry you were when you took it.

Answer 111

The neuron has dendrites attached to the cell body to pick up messages from surrounding neurons (1). The messages from other neurons transform into an electrical impulse that passes down the axon (1). When the action potential gets to the axon terminal it can release neurotransmitters that cross the synaptic gap, passing on the message (1).

Answer 112

- melatonin is a sleep hormone which is produced when it start to get dark - increase in melatonin causes sleepiness - internal pacemakers are located in hypothalamus - persons body tempeture is usually at its highest during the day causing wakefulness. - scn chipmunks - Ralph et al. (1990) found that hamsters went to a 21 hour sleep wake cycle when given the SCN of hamsters who naturally had a 21 hour sleep wake cycle, showing internal pacemakers are important - animal studies might not be generalizabe - sleep cycle can be influenced by other endogenous pacemakers such as light, showing that other factors also play a role in sleep.

Answer 113

- It allows the client to gain insight into their issues so looking at the causes of their behaviour (1) which means that it is more likely the issues will not return as the reasons for them have been addressed (1). - may not be affective for some disorders such as depression where clients may not be motivated to engage with the therapist, therefore a drug treatment may be more effective - Object relations therapy may not be appropriate for some clients as it takes years (1), this may be too long if the client has an issue, such as addiction, that needs to be addressed quickly so may cause more harm in such cases.

Answer 114

A directional (one-tailed) hypothesis predicts the nature of the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable.

Answer 115

A non-directional (two-tailed) hypothesis predicts that the independent variable will have an effect on the dependent variable