psihologija paper 1

Question 1

Burger strength (2)

Answer 1

The participants in Burger’s (2009) research are representative of people aged 20 and 81 years old with different levels of education from high school to Master’s degree, he had a larger sample then Milgram which means his research was more representative and generalisable.

Burger proved that Milgrams original experiment is reliable, he replicated it bz following the instructions and he got the same results as Milgram after half century after, which were that 70% of people obeyed and went over 150v.

Question 2

Burger weakness (2)

Answer 2

One weakness are ethics, Burger deceived participants into thinking that learner were getting real shocks by teachers who were participants, he did reduce the voltage from 450 to 150v and excluded participants who were emotionally unstable but they could have still been psychologically harmed

Another weakness is that task used a schock generator machine to give shocks to learners for incorrect answers and that is not a realistic task for everyday life so there is a lack of task validity in the way in levels of obedience were tested

Question 3

Social power theory strength

Answer 3

can be applied to real world, with soldiers, as they obey the authority figure because they have a legitimate power.

Question 4

social power theory weakness

Answer 4

French and Raven claim that obedience is influenced by the
type of power the authority figure possesses which is not
the only explanation of obedience (1). Alternatively,
Milgram’s (1963) agency theory suggests that being in an
agentic state and giving up free will to an authority figure
will make a person obedient (1).

may obey because the person is source of authority giving an instruction rather then the type of power they own.

may be because of the agency theory, milgram suggested that the legitimacy of an authority figure increases obedience (having status in the place of work)

Question 5

what is conformity and types

Answer 5

conformity, the process where people change their beliefs, attitudes, to more closely match those held by groups to which they belong or want to belong.
compliance - when an individual changes their public behaviours, but they do not change their private beliefs about something
internalisation - when person changes its personal and public beliefs to the group of people permenently
identification - is when a person changes their public behaviour and private beliefs while in the presence of a group but it is not a permanent change

Question 6

Milgram (1963) and variations

Answer 6

100% went to 300v, 65% went to 450v
1. run down office (location change) - from 65% obedience fell to 47,5%
2. proximity, instructions through telephone - from 65% to 22,5%
3. uniform, ordinary man giving orders - from 65% to 20%

Question 7

MSM strength

Answer 7

it divides sensory register, short term memory and long term memory into different store, for example it says that duration of stm is 18-30s but for ltm its unlimited, also information is encoded accousticaly into stm and semantically into ltm

Question 8

MSM weakness

Answer 8

model is too simplistic, it does not explain different types of memory such as procedural or episodic memory and it over empathies the role of rehearsal.

Question 9

quantitative and qualitative data

Answer 9

quantitatve - numerical data, used closed questions with yes or no answers
qualitative - descriptive written data, used open questions with explanations of people, gathering data with surveys, interviews…

Question 10

primary and secondary data

Answer 10

primary - first hand gathered data by the researcher
secondary - already excisting information gathered from internet, newspapers…
- these are after used by a researcher as a part of investigation (there is no need for investigation to collect data)

Question 11

ordinal data

Answer 11

ordinal data can be placed in order of value even when the difference between the values may not have the same meaning for example when people are place first second and third in the race when the time gap between those positions may be different.

Question 12

etchical consideration in cognitive investigation (ours)

Answer 12

We made sure that those who took part were all over 16 years old, they could consent to their own participation in the test of recall, and then informed consent was gained from all the students by giving them a full description of the memory recall task for them to read before they agreed to the experiment.

Question 13

imporvments in cognitive investigation (ours)

Answer 13

sample bigger, more represenatitve

We could have used an independent measures design with
different participants taking part in the different conditions which would prevent any demand characteristics from participants guessing the aim of the experiment that may affect the result accuracy.

Question 14

HM case study

Answer 14

he had a brain injury because of the motorbike accident, he had to go on a surgery where his hippocampus was removed.
He had a damage on stm, and he only had his ltm till age of 11 (only could remember his life until then).
when researchers were trying to teach him a task, he improved during the next few days which means he has procedural memory that remembers the skills, but he could not remember learning the task before (no stm)
he had all the memory that required uncouscious thinking (procedural)
but he did not have any counsic memory which means he could not form new memories, learn new words, facts…

Question 15

Clive Wearing

Answer 15

he had no stm, because of the virus that damaged his brain
he knew how to play the piano and had musical knowledge as well as historical events (wars) which means he had semantic and procedural memory. He had ltm, because he could remember his wife and kids, but he had no stm because he could only remember information for 7 seconds and after 7 seconds it was gone
supports the idea da different parts of brain are involved in different types of ltm and supports that their are different types of ltm.

Question 16

kf case study

Answer 16

he had visual memory (visual spatial sketchpad) but his verbal memory was damaged (phonological loop) this shows us that there are different types of stm.

Question 17

what are schemas

Answer 17

schemas are little pockets of knowledge that can add or change information, they are made of our expectations, previous knowledge, stereotypes and experiences.

Question 18

Bartlett (1932) study

Answer 18

aim - to find out whether the memory of a story is affected by previous knowledge and if cultural backround and unfamiliarity with the story would lead to inaccurate memory when it was recalled.
sample - 20 british people 7 men 13 women
procedure - he used a story called war of the ghosts, which contained unknown names and concepts to the participants, it would test out how memory may be reconstructed basen on the culture schemas
he did a serial reproduction which is when all participants hear a story and are asked to reproduc3e it after a short time and then do it over again after days, weeks or years
participants first had right to read the story twice, after 115 minutes they had to recall it, and after that all participants had a differnet time of the second reproduction between 20 hours to 10 years.
results - they maintained the order of events and main themes in the story, some participants changed title and names of the characters and also some words from canoes to boats
conclusion - after the repeated reconstruction the form of the story became stereotyped and rasionalised and it does not change much after this occured, the details that have been changed are chnaged to fit the participants own social group.
he also used repeated measure design, same participants for each condition

Question 19

strength of Bartlett (1932)

Answer 19

application - allport and postman - subway drawing, from black guy that was dressed better then white ones, stereotypes changed him to the black guy with gun which is scary

Question 20

weakness of Bartlett (1932)

Answer 20

G - he only used his own psychological students, it has low popoulation validity and is not reflective to general population, could lead to demand characteristics as he used psychology students and they may have guessed the aim of the experiments which could affect results. He could not contorl external variables such as if the students would talk about the story between the classes with ewach other.

R - unrelaible and not scientifically valid, lack of standardized procedures and control of external variables. Each participant must have same procedure for the experiment to be reliable, here some had 20 hours to recall and some 10 years. The experiment is not replicable.

Question 21

what is assimilation and what is accomandetion

Answer 21

assimilation - is when you add information to your schema or when you can make a whole new schema for new knowledge
accomendation - when you change the already excisting schemas how you learn new information or have new experiences

Question 22

how can personality affect conformity

Answer 22

a person may have a strong desire to be like someone as they have low self esteem meaning they are more likely to be compliant, because of the normative influence they seek approval from the group and they want to be accepted by others and that is why they would conform

Question 23

how situation can affect conformity

Answer 23

for example school, they have rules and norms that create and shape social rules and responsibilities that could increase conformity

Question 24

how can gender affect conformity

Answer 24

There are some small gender differences in conformity. In public situations, men are somewhat more likely to act independently, and refuse to conform, whereas women are more likely to conform to the opinions of others in order to prevent social disagreement.

Question 25

social power theory - powers

Answer 25

reward power - person who has power to reward someone (give bonus to employees)
coercive power - someone who has a right to punish others that are in lower position than him
legitimate power - ceo, someone who has higher status than you
expert power - doctor, someone who is taught the job and you will obey because they are specialist in that area
referent power - power you got from a sense of identification others feel toward you (leader of a group, person that speaks for the group and their rights, someone trustworthy)

Question 26

Moscovici (1969)
aim, procedure, results, sample

Answer 26

aim - investigate the influence of minority to majority (Asch experiment but reversed)
sample - 192 female
procedure - there were 2 confederates with 4 reall participants in one group
they were asked to explain 36 slides, they were all blue but they had different lighting because of the filters that were used
2 types of filters, natural one that reduces intesity of the lightening and photo filters that allowed lightning to go throug the filters
we had 3 states
1. consistent - 2 confed. said everything was green
3. inconsent - 24 green and 12 blue
3. control - without confederates
at the end of experiment participants filled in questions about the slides and other members of the group
results - 32% of the participants did agree at least once with confederates (minority)
conclusion - minority can influence on majority on verbal level and the way people behave is what influences them and not the social pressure

Question 27

Moscovici (1969) weakness

Answer 27

sample is not reflective and representative to the male population it lacks population validity and generalisability

Question 28

Moscovici (1969) strength

Answer 28

extremely consistent and standardized procedure, same slides and filters it can be easily replicated<

high validity, controlled external variables such as level of brightness that could affect the decision making about the color of the slides, that makes results more valid

Question 29

agency theory

Answer 29

acting as an agent on behalf of someone, so that you are not completely responsible
1. autonomous state - acting independly and making desicions by yourself
2. agentic state - mindset that allows you to carry out orders from an authority figure even if you are not sure or not agree with it

Question 30

questionnaire

Answer 30

questionnaire is a set of questions used to gather information from respondent about a topic of interest
with them researchers can gather both qualitative and quantitative data, with open and closed questions
they can be easily replicated so all respondents receive the same set of standardized questions about their social attitudes
F scale (as example), Adorno, it lacks validity because it only gathered information about how much does participants agree and not the reason why do they agree
in depth answers contain rich details about why individual may consider others to have authority or power increasing the validity of the data gathered by social psychology researchers,

Question 31

strength of schema theory

Answer 31

application - it can be applied to a lot of real life situations such as eye witness, which have to recall the situation they have witnessed, they may give wrong information as new information we learn is not perfectly stored in our memory for life, people also have stereotypes that they use to fill in the gaps in their memory with remade ideas they have.

Question 32

multi store model of memory

Answer 32

sensory memory - duration 0,5s - using 5 of our senses to get the information
short term memory - to place information into short term memory you need to pay attention to it - duration 18-30s - capacity 7 +- 2 , this means that if we do not want to forget the information we should store from 5 to 9 information into short term memory to not forget it
long term memory - to place information from stm to ltm, we need to rehearse it - duration unlimited - capacity unlimited
- to remember information we can also retrial it from ltm back to stm.

Question 33

evidence for MSM - peterson and peterson / miler

Answer 33

p and p - found the stm duration, by 18 seconds participants ability to recall the trigrams was reducedr
miler - in avarage our brain can hold from 5 to 9 information before forgetting it.

Question 34

what is mode?

Answer 34

mode is the most frequent number in the data set
najcesci broj popnovljen u setu

Question 35

what is median score?

Answer 35

middle number, kada se poredjaju ili rankiraju srednji broj
1235678 ovde je median 5

Question 36

what is mean?

Answer 36

srednja vrednost broja sve se sabere i podeli sa koliko brojeva ima u setu

Question 37

standard deviation?

Answer 37

measure which shows to what extent the values in a data set deviate from the mean.

Question 38

sacchi (2007) aim , procedure, sample, results

Answer 38

aim - he wanted to find out if doctored pics of two well known events can change memory and attitude that person has to that event
sample - 187 participants, 31 male and 156 females from 19 to 39 age range
procedure - beijing event was used where he added crowd around the picture, and calm protest in Rome for gay rights, where he added few police officers and agressivelly looking demonstrators.
he used microsoft picture it 2001 to doctor the pics, and 3 sets of multiple choice questions which contained, critical questions, manipulative, questions about the attitude of the participants.
results - most of the people said yes to the pictures they have never seen before because of the manipulative questions.
conclusion - watching doctored pics not only affects the way how people recall past events it also affects their attitudes and intentions with their behaviour.

Question 39

sacchi (2007) weakness

Answer 39

1. sample only contained italian people, it reduces de population validity because it cannot be represented outside the italy, it also does not have balance between the genders.
2. low ecological validity, watching pictures of the event and actually experiencing the event are two different things, when we experience something our memory works differently with it.

Question 40

sacchi (2007) strength

Answer 40

it is an really reliable experiment and it can be easily replicated, because of the programe used to doctor the pictures, and also they had printed check questions that were fill in the classroom setting and this all adds to the reliabliity of the experiment

Question 41

asch study (1951), aim, procedure, results, sample

Answer 41

aim - to find out how big of the influence majority has on minority when it comes to conformity
sample - 50 male students who thought they were participating in the eye test
procedure - he used line judgment task where he placed one real participant with 7 confederates. Each trial they had to say which line was the most similar to the one showed, they had 18 trials and in 12 trials confederates were giving wrong answers, Asch wanted to see if participants would conform to the confederates even though the answers were obviously incorecct.
results - in the first 12 trial 75% conform at least once and 25% never conformed, overall 32% of participants did conform and said the incorrect answers.
conclusion/findings - people conform for 2 main reasons
1. normative influence, where someone wants to be part of the group so they conform
2. informational influence, where someone thinks groups is better informed than them so they conform.

Question 42

Asch (1951) strength

Answer 42

1. the line length and presentation of the lines was standardized across hos groups so all participants have experienced the same controlled conditions, therefore Asch study can be replicated to check if it is an realible test of social pressure to conform when in a majority group.

Question 43

Asch (1951) weakness

Answer 43

1. Asch broke ethical roles, he decived the participants into thinking they are doing an eye test, they also did not have any protection from psychological harm and they felt distressed when they did not agree with t he majority group.
2. sample only contains man, which means it is not representative to female population, it lacks generalisability and population validity.

Question 44

procedure of our social investigation

Answer 44

our class was divided in 2 groups, one group had an task to make 10 quantative questions and other group had to create 10 qualiatative questions. Quantative questions contained closed questions such as ,,Do you obey teacher”, and qualitative questions contained open questions such as ,,Why do u obey the teacher”.
We made a google form quiz, using Likert scale, where 1 was alway obey and 5 never obey. We posted the quiy in our school channel Nexus One Channel and it was done digitaly only. We asked for only 16+ students, non - psychology students to taker part and we made it clear that respones were anonymous.

Question 45

results of our social investigation

Answer 45

1. quantitative - we received 22 male and 13 female responses, the most common answer on Likert scale was 3 which was sometimes obey, and the mean score was 3.
2. qualitative - Females and males obey for different reasons. Males tend to obey because they are worried about consequences and punishment, and they want to avoid these. Females obeyed because they thought it was the ´´right thing to do´´ We made these conclusions based on code words found in males’ responses like ´´punishment´´ ´´to avoid negative consequences´´ and ´´fear of punishment´´
   For females, code words and phrases involved ´´the right thing to do´´ and ´´because not obeying is unfair

Question 46

phonological loop (WMM)

Answer 46

the phonological loop is responsible for storing auditory information in working memory for a limited duration although it can use subvocal rehersal to maintain the auditor information in the short term memory.

Question 47

strength of central executive

Answer 47

Research with patients who have memory deficiencies such as
Alzheimer’s disease provides evidence that supports the idea that the central executive is responsible for the delegating tasks. Baddeley found those with Alzheimer’s were less able
than controls to perform dual visual and verbal tasks that required central executive decision making and delegation.

Question 48

weakness of central executive

Answer 48

There is a lack of scientific evidence to support the function of the central executive as the master system in short term memory processes. Therefore, Baddeley and Hitch (1974) only describe how they believe central executive works rather than providing research that demonstrates actual functioning and processing capability.

Question 49

what is central executive

Answer 49

decides which information is attended to and which parts of the working memory to send that information to be dealt with. For example, two activities come to an conflict such as driving a car an talking, it is better to stop talking and concentrate on driving, so the central executive directs attention and gives priority to activities which is in this case the road.

Question 50

strength of repeated measure design

Answer 50

using same participants in each of conditions eliminates any participant variables that could affect the results of the experiment, so research can be more certain about the accuracy of the results.

Question 51

Burger(2009) aim, sample, procedure, results

Answer 51

aim - to find out if the same results still occur after half of the century when the Milgram experiment is replicated with the modern participants.
sample - 29 men, 41 women 20-81 years old, different education levels, from high scholl to masteer degree
procedure - Burger excluded all people that had any psychology knowledge, or any emotional instabilities.
Procedure was the same as Milgrams, differenece that Burger made was that he reduce the voltage from 450v to 150v
it was an lab experiment, done in artificial setting but higly contorlled one.
results - 70% of the participants went over 150v so that means that Milgrams findings and results are still accurate after half of the century

Question 52

describe how personality can affect obedience

Answer 52

1. if person has high internal locus of contorl they will be less likely to obey as they know they have control over their decisions and actions, whereas if person has high external locus of control they will be more likely to obey the authority figure as they think they dont have any control over their life and that external variables are the one controling their life.
2. If a person has an authoritarian personality they are more likely to be obedient as they are more likely to obey to maintain order and maintain social rules and values.

Question 53

what is authoritarian personality

Answer 53

refers to a person who has extreme respect for authority and is more likely to be obedient to those who hold power over them.

Question 54

how does gender affect obedience

Answer 54

gender may not affect obedience as both genders are equally likely to obey an authority figure, although females often report higher stress and tension when following the instructions to harm others.

Question 55

strengths of agency theory

Answer 55

1. Milgram proved that 65% of people would obey the authority figure which was in this case experimenter wearing the lab coat, and they went up to 450v
2. Burger shows that agency theory remains relevant explanation in modern day of why would people follow instructions of authority figure because 70% of his participants demonstrated that they would go over 150v.

Question 56

what is information processing

Answer 56

information processing is when we encode information from sensory memory to short term memory by paying attention to it and then store it into long term memory by rehearsing it.

Question 57

strength of reconstructive memory

Answer 57

supporting evidence from Bartlett shows how prior knowledge can change memories. Participants in war of the ghosts changed the story content, such as from canoes to boats, using prior knowledge.

Question 58

Schmolck (2002) aim, sample, procedure, results

Answer 58

aim - to find out if semantic long term memory is connected to the special part of the brain. He focused on damage of medial temporal lobe and hippocampus and in detail watched the performance of patient HM.
sample - 6 patients with damage on medial temporal lobe and 8 controlers without any damage, 3 patients also had damage on temporal cortex.
procedure - there were 9 tests for semantic lont term memory functions
it contained few categories,
1. accuracy - they were asked to give as much examples as possible in 1 minute on the said topic
2. sorting - they had to sort 48 drawings into man made and living
3. definitons - they were showed a picture and they had to define it with the hteme it was belonging to
results - HM 98% live 100% men made / MTL+ 85% and 90% (all togehter 78%)
conclusion - there is a link between the damage of temporal cortex and general loos of long term memory
this suggests that episodic and semantic long term memory are coded in different parts of brain with hippocampus.

Question 59

strength schmolck

Answer 59

1. reliable experiment, highly standardized lab setting, he used images, and everything was audi recorded
2. some of the tests in experiment are used with patients that had dementia and it can be applied to everyday medical life

Question 60

weaknees schmolck

Answer 60

1.small sample, only 6 patients cannot represent all th epeople with brain damages, also here we only have 2 brain damages while in real life there are much more

Question 61

individual differences

Answer 61

external locus of control - will obey
extrovert personalirty - will not obey

Question 62

stratified sample

Answer 62

frist we should decide on subgroups for the sample of particiopants, then calculate teh % of the participants in each subgroup (they can be maale nad female for example), that % would represent the full range of the target population.

Question 63

Randomisation?

Answer 63

Randomisation involves something being assigned based on chance

Question 64

encoding?

Answer 64

Encoding is the process of formatting information in different ways

Question 65

strength atkison i shafrin

Answer 65

1. Research evidence supports the idea of the STM and LTM being
   separate stores
2. Peterson and Peterson (1959) found more than 90% of trigrams were forgotten when rehearsal was prevented after 18 seconds which is evidence to support the role of rehearsal in memory which is proposed by the multi-store model

Question 66

weakness wmm

Answer 66

1. The working memory model does not fully explain how the
   central executive works (1) as it does not clearly provide us with
   an understanding of how it supervises and coordinates the
   slave sub-systems (
2. The working-memory model is simplistic as it does not clearly
   explain processing in the LTM (1) Tulving (1972) proposed that
   the LTM is divided into different memory stores such as the
   semantic and episodic memory which the working-memory
   model does not consider

Question 67

counterbalancing

Answer 67

It means that you divide the participants into two groups and have each group perform a slightly different task, so that any imbalance in the task is canceled out.

Question 68

sampling

Answer 68

random - everyone has equal chances to get chosen
stratified - subgroups categories, each showing a key characteristic which should be present in the final sample
opportunity - Participants who are both accessible and willing to take part are targeted
volunteered - people that volunteered to be in the study