PSYCHOLOGY paper 3

Question 1

what is attachment?

Answer 1

attachment is a deep and strong bond between two people, usually a primary caregiver and a child. The relationship is reciprocal, which means that it is a two way relationship.

Question 2

what is reciprocity?

Answer 2

reciprocity is when an infant responds to the actions of another person in a form or turn taking.
From around 3 months old, reciprocity increases in frequency as the infant and caregiver pay increasingly attention to each others verbal and facial communications.
It is suggested that showing this sensitive responsiveness, whereby the caregiver pays attention sensitively towards the infants behaviour will lay the strong foundation of attachment to develop later between the caregiver and the infant.

Question 3

what is interactinal synchrony?

Answer 3

it takes place when infants mirror (imitate) the actions or emotions of another person.
Facial expressions, when they imitate and act as their caregiver simultaneously then two are said to be synchronized.

Question 4

stages of attachment?

Answer 4

Schaffer and Emerson conducted a longitudinal study and found 4 stages of attachments.
1. asocial stage (preattachment)
2. indiscriminate stage (diffuse)
3. discriminate stage (specific)
4. multiple attachment

Question 5

explain asocial stage?

Answer 5

• from birth to 6 weeks
• infant shows similar response to objects and people.
  Towards the end they start displaying preferences for certain individuals.

Question 6

explain indiscriminate stage?

Answer 6

• from 6 weeks to 7 months
• an infant now shows a preference for human company over non human company
• infant can distignish between different people and can be handled by a stranger without distress

Question 7

explain discriminate stage?

Answer 7

• from 7 months onwards
• an infant shows a preference for one caregiver, displaying seperation and stranger anxiety
• the infant looks to a particular person for security and protection.

Question 8

multiple attachement stage?

Answer 8

• from 9 months onwards
• attachment behaviours are now displayed towards several different people. (sibling and grandparents)
  also known as secondary attachment, separation and stranger anxiety decreases,.

Question 9

AO3, Schaffer and Emerson 1964 - supporting research

Question 10

O’Connor (2013) AIM

Answer 10

investigate to what extend social learning theory based intervention promoted change in quality of child parent relationship.

Question 11

O’Connor (2013) PROCEDURE

Answer 11

• randomized clinical trial on 174, 4-6 year old children from 4 primary schools in London
• it was a longitundial study (3 years)
• 88 interventional condition and 86 in non interventional condition
• informed consent was received from the parents and the local research ethics comittee also gave an approval for the study
• parents were thought new parental techniques and asked to practise skills at home.
• the post treatment observations were done through home visits by a team of 2 trained researchers who did not know which condition the family was in (all videotaped)
• 3 tasks to do:
  1. 10 min free play with no instructions given
  2. 10 min instructed challenge
  3. 5 min of tidying up with minimal instructions
• observers rated each of the 3 tasks, and the ratings showed whether there was a positive (sensitive responding) or negative parenting style.
• mutuality was measured as the degree to which each member seems to wilingly accept and seek the other’s involvement in a joint activity.

Question 12

O’Connor results

Answer 12

• parents in the intervention condition showed higher number of positive behavioural changes and increased sensitive responding compared to the non intervention group.

Question 13

O’Connor conclusion

Answer 13

• standard social learning theory based interventions can change aspects of parents child relationship quality.

Question 14

O’Connor AO3 strengths

Answer 14

• as study has standardized procedure and controlled procedure with time limits of 10 and 5 min, video recorded and also used instructions, mean that the study is reliable and replicable
• for each intervention group, a profesoinal is provided to guide the parents and explain any misunderstandings and to make sure task was done corectlly, therefore results are not affected by any external variables ensuring internal validity.
• informed consent was given and the study helps imporve the quality of parent child attachment relationships. Beneficial and ethical.

Question 15

O’Connor AO3 weaknesses

Answer 15

• the presence of 2 observes and a camera might have affected the performance of participants which leads to demand caracteristics which can influence results, the3refore it reduces the validity of the study.
• study has a sample of 174 4-6 year old kids from only 4 primary schools in London, therefore it cannot be applied to other nationalities or ages above 6. It lacks population validity.

Question 16

Bowlby monotropic theory

Answer 16

takes an evolutionary perspective. He argued that children are born with an innate tendency to form attachments with their parents in order to increase chances to survivol.

Question 17

Adaptive AO1

Answer 17

attachments are adaptive which means they give humans an advantage, making them more likely to survive.
if an infant has an attachment, they are kept safe, given food and kept warm by their caregiver

Question 18

Social releaasers AO1

Answer 18

• infants posses inborn social releasers, which unlock an innate tendency for primary caregiver to care for them.
• physical, ‘‘baby face’’ that make baby’s appear cute
• behavioural, crying and smilling to get attention

Question 19

Critical period AO1

Answer 19

• infants must form an attachment with their caregiver during the critical period which is between 3 and 6 months of age. (3 years old)
• If attachment is not formed, infants would be damaged in following areas - intelectually, socially, physically, emotionally

Question 20

Monotropy AO1

Answer 20

• Bowbly believed that infants form a very special attachment with their primary caregiver. This special and intense attachment is called monotropy.
• If the mother is not available, the child can bond with another person known as mum’s substitute

Question 21

Internal working model AO1

Answer 21

• an internal template for future relationships expectations.
  If a child has a strong and healthy attachment with their primary caregiver then they will develop strong and healthy relationships in the future (same with negative ones)

Question 22

Theory of maternal deprivation AO1

Answer 22

• it occurs when an attachment bond is formed between an infant and caregiver but is broken later in life. (up to 3 years )
• if maternal deprivation occurs it would have lasting negative effects on a child in terms of their emotional development.

Question 23

Bowlby 44 thieves study AIM

Answer 23

• to investigate the long term effects of maternal deprivation on people to see whether delinquents have suffered deprivation

Question 24

Bowlby PROCEDURE

Answer 24

• opportunity sample of 88 children was selected from the clinic where Bowlby worked.
• 44 juvenile thieve and 44 controls, 65 boys and 23 girls (had emotional problems but no crimes commited)
• each child had their IQ tested by a psychologist and two groups were matched for age and IQ
• children and parents were interviewed to record details of the child early life by Bowlby, psychologist and a social worker, they all made different reports.

Question 25

Bowlby RESULTS

Answer 25

14 thieves were identified as having affectionless psychopathy, with 12 of those having experienced maternal deprivation.

Question 26

Bowlby CONCLUSION

Answer 26

• maternal deprivation in the childs early life cause, permanent emotional damage

Question 27

Bowlby AO3 strengths

Answer 27

• Bowlby used a range of methods to collect his data such as full scale IQ tests, observations of the child’s emotional state and interviews giving a valid measure as he was able to gather in depth data for both the group of 44 thieves and the control group to compare the effects of maternal deprivation on affectionless
  psychopathy
• ## Bowlby’s research has had a significant impact on important institutions such as hospitlas. The robertson 1952, observed a 2 year old girl named Laura who was in the hospital for 8 days. Laura strugggled to cope with the motional deprivation, demonstration real distress. Psychlogical researh has provided hospitals with new ideas to support children who suffer from maternal deprivation by providing substitue emotional care.

Question 28

Bowlby AO3 weaknesses

Answer 28

• 44 thieves cannot be applied to the whole population as they are juvenil, there was also an imbalance of gender
• research bias, as bowlby conducted the experiment himself and made the diagnosis of affectionless psycopathy. He also knew in what group children were in, therefore his findings may have been unconsicouly influenced by his own expectations which decreases validity.
• Lewis 1944 replicated Bowlby’s study with a larger sample of children but did not find similar results <(that early deprivation was a predicted for criminal behaviour) Furthermore, Barrett (1997) found that securely attached children are more resistant to the negative effects of maternal deprivation in comparison to insecurely attached children. This makes Bowlby’s study not reliable and replicable.

Question 29

strange situation procedure AO1

Answer 29

observational method looking at the attachment between a caregiver and an infant.
- infants aged between 12-18 monts were placed in a situation of mild stress, unfamiliar room whereby they are left alone, left with a straneg and reunited with their caregiver.

Question 30

Insecure avoidant

Answer 30

infant keeps a distance drom the mother and avoids proximity.
- has low stranger anxiety and no seperation anxiety
- do not approach mother for the comfort and they will have insensitive caregivers who ignore their emotional needs

Question 31

secure

Answer 31

• the mother becomes a safe base for exploration
• high stranger and seperation anxiety
• wwwelcoming reunion the baby looks for comfort and proximity and mother shows sensitive responsiveness

Question 32

insecure resistant

Answer 32

clingy to the mother in the new situation
high seperation and stranger anxiety
- reject the attachment figure whrn interactingf
mother is incosistent with their sensitive responsivemess

Question 33

SSP AO3 strength

Answer 33

• reliabililty, videoreocded, it had standardized procedure and several observers were wathicng and coding the same infant behaviours. There was 94% agreement between observers and when inter rater reliability is assumed to a high degree the results are considered more meaningful.
• primary caregivers gave full informed consent for them and their child to participante in the experiment therefore it decreases ethical issues.

Question 34

SSP AO3 weakness

Answer 34

• lacks ecological validity, its an artifical and controlled setting meaning that the caregiver and the infnat are in unfamiliar encvirinment and therefore they might behave df+iffernetky which can imapct the results of the study and it lowers external validity
• overt observation meaning that the participants knew that they were observed, therefore there coud be demand characteristics which means that they might act differently as they guessed the aiim of the experiment, for example parent being overky affectionet with their child
• its not ethical to put a child in that situation, and leave it with a stranger, as they were distressed showing crying and anxiety as they were seperated from their primary caregiver.

Question 35

Casibba AIM.

Answer 35

• to examen whether the distibutions of child and adult attachments clasifications converge with the global and to investigate wheathe most italian infants and adults have secure attacchment.

Question 36

Cassibba PROCEDURE

Answer 36

child sample - 627 participants 17 studies
adult sample - 2258 participants 50 studies
they used meta analysis, psychINFO, and they used keywords being strangesituation procedure, attachment, italian.
they were compared to american to find differences
distribution of attachment types were assesed in terms of gender, age and type of particioant to find inter cultural differences

Question 37

Cassibba CONCLUSION

Answer 37

differences are liekly to be a results of childrearing practises as italian parents encourage indepoendece from an yound age, unlike the american culture

Question 38

Cassibba AO3 strength

Answer 38

+ large sample size used. cassibba has good generalisability because it used many studies for both adults and children. The study has 2885 participants making it representative of the Italian population . Therefore the study showed a good representation of the target population.
+ can be applied to helping the formation of parenting classes to encourage the formation of secure attachment.
+ its ethical as meta analyssi wwas used and no children had to go through ssp and be distress, therefore no one was directly involved and was protected form harm
+ all the child studies involved the SSP,, so it is internally valid as theya re experimental procedures in which cause and effect can be established.

Question 39

Cassibba RESULTS

Answer 39

children overall attachment type was type B secure attachment and it was 53%
adult same 60%

Question 40

Cassibba AO3 weakness

Answer 40

• the meta analysis used data from previous attachment studies and it may lack contemporaneus validity as some of them are more than 10 years old, therefore they should be retested to ensure their results. Theredore, data that Cassibba used an me outdated and flawed
• .cassibba used specific keywords such as italian, attachment, or ssp, therefore creating experimental bias because studies that did not fit were dismissed. Furthermore, the findings are not reliable bevcause there is no standard procedure in meta analysis, meanin it could be rejected and different conclusion made.the findings were in respect of attachment in italian population, therefore coudl be considered as ethnocentric and may not be generalizable to other countries, however, Cassibba was only studying Italians.

Question 41

tVan izjendorn and kroonenberg AIM

Answer 41

Aim was to carry out a cross cultural analysis looking at differences between cultures and within cultures of the attachment types in different countries.

Question 42

Van and Kroonenberg PROCEDURE

Answer 42

• they noted that attachment types varied across the world based on the studies that have already been compledet.
• meta analysis was used which involved a search for suitable studies using a large database from which they could analyse the strange situation procedures in terms of attachment types. 8 countries 32 different studies
• they calculated the average % for the differeent attachment styles in each country
• choice of studies excluded any special children such as those with Diwn Syndrome and any using of children who were oldre than 2 years old and theyy used only mother infants.

Question 43

Van and kroonenber RESULTS

Answer 43

It was found that secure attachment was the most common type in all cultures.
- the lowest % was sjown in China and the hghes in the UK
- individualistic countries that support independence (Germany) had high levels of anxious avoidant, whereas collectivistvountries such as Japan had high levels of avodiant resistent.

Question 44

Van and Kroonenberg CONCLUSION

Answer 44

since the global trend seems to reflect the US norm of secure attachment being the most common, it adds weight to the argument that secure attachment is the optimal attachment type for healthy development.

Question 45

Van and Kroonenberg AO3 +

Answer 45

+ The Efe Tribe, located in Africa.
They live in extended family groups where the infants are looked after and even breastfed by other women. Infants tend to sleep with their mother. Although, the culture is different then the western one, the infant still showed a preference to the primary caregiver, supporting the finding of the study that type B attachment is the most secure one.
+ they used a strict criterion when choosing their sample of studies, for example they excluded studies where children were over 2 years old, therefore they were able to more accurately compare the data about attachment types across cultures.
+ a meta analysis of 1900 strange situations was used which reduces ethical issues in their study, as the secondary data did not require the children to be distressed by using the strange situation procedure.

Question 46

Van and Kroonenberg AO3 -

Answer 46

• They used meta analysis meaning they were also Using secondary data means that they cannot be certain that the studies were conducted relibaly by the originial researchers, especially if the study is older than 10 years. Therefore the data used in the study might be flawed.
• Research bias as they used specific strange situations such aas the ones withouth Dows Syndrom kids. As well as strange situation procedure is from America meaning there might have been cultural bias as they did not include countries from Africa or South America.

Question 47

Chomsky AO1

Answer 47

• believed that language development was due to biological factors.
• in absence of formal language, Chomsky believed that children develop their own system of communication to cover their needs.

Question 48

Chomsky LAD AO1

Answer 48

• humans have an inborn or innate biological capacity for language (LAD)
• LAD is an organ of the brain that is supposed to function as a congenital device for learning symbolic language.
• it allows children to form sentences with words they already know.
• it allows children to learn any language they are exposed to

Question 49

Chomsky universal grammar AO1

Answer 49

• system of categories, operations and principles shared by all human languages and are considered to be innate.
• theory that suggests that some rules of grammar are hard wired into the brain and are manifest without being though.
• it allows to understand the characteristics of other languages as its a world grammar.
• it gives a child an innate understanding of the order of words in a sentence.

Question 50

Chomsky poverty of stimulus AO1

Answer 50

• linguistic concept that argues that children cannot learn a language properly due to the imperfect input they receive from the environment.
• therefore, all babies have an innate capacity of universal grammar to aid language development.

Question 51

Chomsky AO3 +

Answer 51

+ Genie failed to learn language before the critical period (11). She was found at 13 years old, and the period is 11. Eventually, she was able to sound some words, but she could never piece together the language she needed. She regressed fully and didnt say anthing again when she was placed back into care
+ an LAD explains how people can create a new sentences using words without having heard them previously making the LAD a more credible explanation of how grammatical language develops without requiring exposure to all forms of spoken sentences in a language.

Question 52

Chomsky AO3 -

Answer 52

• the work of Brunner (LASS) suggests that Chomsky’s LAD isn not a complete explanation as it does not account for social factors, such as the interactions with others that provide scaffolding to the child when learning language. In this sense its too redunctionist and docuses solely on the individual child development and biological milestone.
• Jean Piaget argued that the brain naturally wants to organize information into categories, this is a result of general intellectual ability, not a specific language device. LAD lacks testbility, we cannot cut open the rbain and find it in the way that we could for the criminals involved in Raine.

Question 53

Mindfulness AO1

Answer 53

• participants will be led by the teacherin simple medidation and concentration exersise.
• aim is to become more aware of and giving close attention to sensations as they happen in the body, such as breathing.

Question 54

Mindfulness improvements - academic scores

Answer 54

AO1
- it assist childrens concentration in class, this is because by only focusing and concentrating on breathing individuals learn to focus their mind.
- Mindfulness mediation helps to supress distractions from the environment so children can concentrate on tasks.
A03
- Weare 2013, found that academic results of children improved after engaging in a mindfulness course. If course aids the development of children in an ethical way - mindfulness is unlikely to cause any distress.
– Scientific data has suggested a correlation between improved academic scores and memory, with beginning mindfulness sessions. The Scientific American Journal reported students in the USA improved test scores by 16 points after compleeting mindfulness.
- Moore and Molinowski 2009 found increased participants ability to pay attention and also increased cognitive flexibility, although young children may struggle to medidate this effectively so it may not enchane development.

Question 55

Mindfulness improvements - emotional health and behaviour of children

Answer 55

AO1
- mindfulness oriented meditation has been found to dramatically improve emotional wellbeing of children, for example by helping them to manage stress and anxiety around exam times. Meditation can also improve behaviour and help children with behavioural disorders to remain calm.
AO3
- Robeert Coleman School in USA struggled with poor behaviour of students, since introducing mindfulness mediation rooms insreaad detention, they have not have to suspend any students.

Question 56

Mindfulness issues - training

Answer 56

AO1
- mindfulness tends to be delveered by techers which are no specialists, such as parents and children with differing levels of training.
AO3
- the inconsistency in training may make it difficult for practitioner to effectively teach the program. This could provide an ineffective practise, and shows a lack of reliability between the delivery of schols.
- Lustyk 2009 highlights the need for practitioners to be trained in the delivery of midnfulness programs as vulnerable participants can suffer from side effectrs such as hallucinations and insomnia which can cause them harm and distress.

Question 57

mindfulness issues - more beneficial to teachers

Answer 57

AO1
- mindfulness can be extremeely difficult to master and requires continued practice and determination to master the mind. This will be very difficult for some students who struggle to pay attention, perhaps due to ADHD, Autism, Schizophrenia etx. It may not be appropriate for all the children
A03
- Children my not be fully aware of the implicaiton of engagin in mindfulnes programmes, so the use of thiy may breach UNCRC guidence on child participantion and protection.
- Lawrol 2010 asked teachers and teenage students to reflect on emotional and social conduct after the students had participated in mindfulnes session. Teachers noted improvement in social and emptional awarness and pro social behaviours but students did not attirbute this to mindfulness, therefore questioning it effectiveness for individual .

Question 58

Piaget AO1

Answer 58

• Piaget was interesed in how children learn and adapt to the world. In order for adaptation or assimilation of schemas to occur, there must be constant interactions between the child and the outside world.
  Schema is a mental representation of objects, people, places that we use to aid our understanding.
  Assimilation is when new and old information are put into existing schemas
  Accomadation is when new information creates totally new schemas.
  Egocentric is when a child is unable to see a situation from another persons point of view
  The stages are invariant and universal

Question 59

Sensori motor stage (0-2)

Answer 59

infants learn by moving around. Key achiveement is object permanence, which involves being aware that objects continue to exist when they are no longer in the view.
In early part of this stage, the infant has no awareness at all of object permanence
They use their senses to learn about their environment

Question 60

pre-operational stage (2-7)

Answer 60

child uses symbols (words and images) to represent objects but does not reason logically.
The child has ability to pretend (use imagination)
they show animism: thinking objects like toys have genuine human feelinga
children in this stage are egocentric

Question 61

concrete-operational stage (7-12)

Answer 61

logical reasoning occurs but can only be applied to objests that are real or can be seen.
Children learn a range of cognitive operations related to mathematics (can add and subtract)

Question 62

formal operational stage (12+)

Answer 62

can think logically about potential events, they can start to think about their future.
adolescents and adults can think in abstract way
individuals now begin to develop a strong sense of morality, they may be able to understand and critize world evvents such as climate change

Question 63

Piaget AO3 +

Answer 63

+ Piaget theory has the positive applications to other areas in society. The principles of Piagets theory has been applied to early years education. School have envolved from an old fashion view of children seating quietly in the classroom to children completing activities that are stage oriented. Therefore, Piagets theory has been influencial in education as it has changed the education system taking into account students cognitive development.

+ Piaget found out that children in pre operational stage did not have

Question 64

Piaget AO3 -

Answer 64

• Piaget sample consisted of middle class children from Swizerland. This means that his findings lack generalisability to other children from different culture and social classes. Children from different cultures or social classes may pass through the stages at different points. Therefore, the theory is not universally applicable.
• Piaget suggested that children of the age of 11 should be able to develop logial and abstract thinking. However, it is doubtful whether many adults are capable of this. Peter Watson found that 2 out of 16 participants got it right in the abstract thinking and 10 out of 16 got it right when the task was given in the concrete form. This suggests that Piaget was over optimistic about what children of 11 can do .
• Piaget studied children in artificial setting to develop his stages meaning evidence for assimilation comes from tasks that lack validity,

Question 65

Learning theory by Skinner

Answer 65

Skinner believed that there were 4 term contigency on the basis of language development

Question 66

1. motivating operations

Answer 66

• motivations that encourage or discourage certain behaviour.
  Their purpose is to enhance or reduce the reinforcement value
• or example food deprivation. if someone is hungry the reinforcement is going to be enhanced, however if someone is full the reinforcement is going to be reduced.

Question 67

2. Dicriminative stimuli

Answer 67

• type of stimulus that signals whether a reinforcement will occur if someone performs a behvaiours.
  for example, light turning on before food is delivered, discriminative stimulus signals that pressing the lever results in food.

Question 68

3. Response

Answer 68

• the individual response to discriminative stimuli.
• positive response is when a behaviour continues because its rewarded, while negative response means that behaviour stops.

Question 69

4. Reinforcing stimuli

Answer 69

a stimulus that makes the behviour that produced it stronger or weaker.
positive reinforcement: the reinforcing stimulus aims to increase the likehood of the response
negative reinforcement: the reinforcing stimulus whose removal decreases the likehood of the response.

Question 70

Learning theory Skinner AO3

Answer 70

+ research into feral childre, such as Oxana who was raised by dogs in the Ukraine in the forest until 7, indicated children imitate actions and language, as no human was talking to her she instead imitated barking and crawling.

Question 71

Learning theory Skinner AO3

Answer 71

• Skinner is critized for being over simplistic and ignoring the process of learning error. His theory does not explain children who frequently make grammatical errors, they have successfully imitated words and listed to their parents who do not show grammatical errors. Therefore, grammar must be obtained in other forms, not just via imitation and it must involve other knowledgable others.
• work by Dr Janine Oostenbriek, she exposed 106 infants (1st week of their life) to a wide range of actions made by adults such as mouth opening, happy and sad expressions. Across all the actions, the researchers found no evidence that infants produced matching actions more often than non matching ones.

Question 72

Learning theory of attachment AO1

Answer 72

• the learning theory explanation of attachment explains how infants learn to become attached to their primary caregiver through classical conditioning or operant conditioning.
• classical conditioning is process of learning by associating 2 stimuli together to condition response.

Question 73

Learning theory of attachment: OPERANT CONDITIONING AO3? STRENTGH

Answer 73

Dollard and Miller applied the principles of reward and reinforcement to explain human attachment between a caregiver and a child.
- when an infant feels hunger it has a drive to reduce the unpleasent feeling, crying or receiving comfort.
when the caregiver provides food a feeling of pleaser is produced for them which is positive reinforcement, and a caregiver has negative reinforcement because he gets rewarded by the infant stoping crying.
reinforcement is a reciprocal process.
- ATTACHMENT, also known as secondary drive will occur because the infant will seek the person who can supply the reward, which supports the learning theory of attachhment.

Question 74

Learning theory of attachment AO3

Answer 74

• learning theory is undermined by research by Harlow who found that baby monkeys spent more time with a soft towelling mokey which provided no food, in comparison to a wire monkey that provided food. This shows us that baby monkeys do not form attachment based on presence of food alone and prefer contact comfort, going against the learning theory.
• there are methodological issues with the research evidence for learning theory. Most of supporting research comes from Pavlov and Skinners research and it has been critized for over relience on animals. This is an issue because psychologists argue that a complex emotional bond between a human infant and their caregiver cant be explained by oversimplified explanation based on animal research, therefore learning theory explanation may lack validity.

Question 75

Learning theory of attachment AO3

Answer 75

+ Because the theory only looks at behaviours, every step in the onditioning process is observable. This adds to the credibility of the theory, since we can see it happen with our own eyes. In aditiion operant conditioning is supported by many studies on both animals and human learning. Skinner and many others conducted hundreds of lab experiments demonstrating operant conditioning. There are consistent findings regarding the ability to modify behaviour using reinforcement and punishment. Which increases the credibility of the theory.

Question 76

Vygotsky AO1

Answer 76

he believed that child development was not biological instead created through social interaction.
He beliveved that children develop insdependently through social interaction and that we are born with 4 mental functions that allows us to develop cognitive understanding.
1. attention 2. sensation 3. perception 4. memory

Question 77

Vygostky The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

Answer 77

• difference between what learner can do without help and what they can achieve with guidence
• proximal refers to those skills that the learner is close to mastering
• ZPD is the zone where instruction is the most beneficial, as it is when the task is just beyond the individuals capabilities.
  Vygostky believed that when the student is in ZPD with appropriate assistance will give the student enough of a boost to achieve the task

Question 78

Vygostky the presence of knowledgable other

Answer 78

• this refers to someone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than a learner, for a particular task, process or concept (teacher)

Question 79

Social interaction

Answer 79

• children learn though social interaction with skilfull tutor
  Tutor may model behaviours or provide verbal instructions for the child (collaborative dialogue)
• child seeks to understand the actions provided by the tutor, then internalizes the information, using it to guide their own performance.

Question 80

scaffolding

Answer 80

• it consists of the activities provided by the educator to support the student as they are led through the ZPD
  Support is gradually removed by the end of the process and the student will be able to do the task independently.

Question 81

interactionist perspective of language development

Answer 81

• language develops from social interactions for communication purposes
  2 main cognitive roles
  1. adults transmitting information to children
  2. language is important in intellectual adaptation

Question 82

social speecj

Answer 82

external communication used to talk to others 2+

Question 83

private speechq

Answer 83

transition point between social and inner speech, the moment where languge and though unite to create verbal thinking 3

Question 84

private speech goes underground

Answer 84

children stop talking aloud, and start to use inner speech 3-7
internally, silent, internal dialogue

Question 85

Vygotsky AO3 +

Answer 85

+ Dunn and Munn 1987 found social interaction in play enhances cognitive development, which provides evidence that scaffolding helps children learn. As well as, Abbas 2017 found that after 6 weeks of teaching using scaffolding technique, children’s comprehension was significantly better than those who did not have the tecnique.
+ Vygotsky ZPD can be applied to educational contex in order to help children learn intellectual concepts, therefore it has validity and real wolrd application.

Question 86

Vygotsky AO3 -

Answer 86

• the ZPD is an internal process which cannot be empirically tested or observed, making the theory less scientific.
• chomsky believed learning language was an innate human trait wherre we are predisposed to acquire linguistic skills, therefore socialisation is over emphasasied by Vygotsky as he does not take into the account biological processses.
• vygotsky work has not received the same level of intense scrunity that Piaget’s has, partly due to time consuming process of transleting Vygotsky work from Russian. Vygotsky, sociocultural perspective does not provide many specific hypothesis to test as Piaget’s theory, making proving difficult if not possible.
• does not take into account any cuultural differences between the children

Question 87

language development AO1

Answer 87

• process of how a child acquiers speech and communication
• child learns the basic linguistic patterns and increase their vocabulary
• stages of language development are universal so every child vary
• there are different factors that can influence language development (motivation, environment, gender, psychical development)

Question 88

Importance of language developmet

Answer 88

• positive language development can help a child with
  1. social interactions as it allows them to communicate and interact with family or friends
  2. cognitive development, learning a new language enables children brain development and increases intelligence.
  3. improves literacy, helps a child understand books
  4. self-esteem, use of language effectively, increases self esteem as they can communicate with others with more confidence

Question 89

pre - linguistic stage 0-6 months

Answer 89

• dont have developed language skills, communication with sounds. (crying)
• infant can recognize voices and sounds in addition to facial expressions and voice tones

Question 90

babbling stage 6-9

Answer 90

• child begins to babble, making noises and syllables that arent yet words
• mouth muscles and teeth grow to prepare children for more advanced talking

Question 91

holophrastic stage 9- 1,5 years old

Answer 91

• language skills improve, single words that describe objects or basic needs are knows and used
• infants might say dada to catch dads attention

Question 92

two word stage 1,5 - 2 years old

Answer 92

• can speak 2 word sentences that usually have some meaning
• they group words together from holophrastic stage

Question 93

telegraphic stage 2 - 2,5 years old

Answer 93

• can speak phrases with more than two elements
• correct grammar might still not occur
• child develops the ability to understand basic instruction with 2 port orders

Question 94

multi word stage 30 months onwards

Answer 94

• build increasinglly complex sentences that allows them to communicate better
• they know to use plural and singular form of the word dog into dogs

Question 95

Ding AIM

Answer 95

to investigate the relation of mother, infants attachment to attachment, behavioural and cognitive development in young children

Question 96

Ding Procedure

Answer 96

• it was a longditudinal study, there was 160 participants (12-18 months) they were collected through a health network in Shanghai and are all comming from middle class families.
• participants completed an attachment assessment by strange situation procedure with 8 different situations one of them being when mother leaves a hild alone with the stranger, while the first visit of researchers. After the assessment the infants were followed up when they were 3 years old.
• full consent was provided by the mothers and the research ethics committee of the children’s hospital also approved the study
• they used 3 types of questionnaires, one of them being q-set (AQS), attachment between young children and their mothers.
• only 118 young children completed the follow up procedure
  Audio and video recordings were used, and video data was coded by 2 researcher to classify the attachment type of the infants.

Question 97

Ding results

Answer 97

78 children demonstrated secure type of attachment
40 demonstrated insecure type of attachment
- infants with insecure attachment, collectively had a loweer mental development index in early childhood, than infants with secure attachment.

Question 98

Ding conclusion

Answer 98

• secure mother infants attachment predicts a better cognitive and behavioural outcome
• insecure attachment (resistant), my lead to lower cognitive level and gather behavioural problem in early childhood.

Question 99

Ding AO3 +

Answer 99

+ the strange situation procedure has been tested and retested across different cultures and has been found to be a reliable measure of attachment type which increases the credibility of the findigs made by Ding.
+ ganing consent and having approval of an ethical committee ensures that the study meets ethical criteria so that minimal distress should be caused to the children or their mothers. All mothers provided full consent.
+ Cassibba and Van, increasing inter reliability as they both used ssp and got the same results as ding.

Question 100

Ding AO3 -

Answer 100

• the sample decreased by 42 over the duration of the study which reduces the avaliable data needed to assess the cognitive outcomes of children with different attachment types in infancy.
• mothers and infants were also in controlled and artificial environment (hospital), doing an artificial task (questionnaire) meaning that could have influenced their answers because of social desirability, low ecological validity.
• the sample does not represent the wider socioeconomic population such as higher or lower class and is culturally biased to Shangahi which reduces the generalisability of findings about attachment and cognitive outcomes.

Question 101

Punch 2002 AIM

Answer 101

-explores how young people negotiate limitations over their choices, including their rural location, parental attitued, family backgrounds and role models

Question 102

Punch 2002 PROCEDURE

Answer 102

• the fieldwork took place over 2,5 years, children aged 6-14
  3 moonths classroom observation, teacher assistant (Punch)
• he interviewed 18 households (infromal and semi structured) and travelled to Argentina twice to interview children who migrated there
• he used 5 task based methods to collect qualitative data (drawing, photographs, PRA, diaries and worksheets)

Question 103

Punch 2002 conclusion

Answer 103

• the young achieve economic independece sooner than urban populations , however they maintain long term family independence and have a strong sense of responsibility to their family.

Question 104

Punch AO3 +

Answer 104

+ Punch was fluent in the local language after studying it at university, this adds to internal validity as she was able to understand local terminology and converse easiely during interviews, she could also clarify questions to children if needed.
+ Punch use of ethnographic research through observation and interaction in the classroom setting helped our understanding in development psychology of youth development in rural Bolivia.
+ Punch research took an emic approach which allowed her to get closer to the culture and lifestyle of the childrem incrasing out understanding of how they developed. Punch also engaged in many activities herself, such as play and school therefore she had better understanding of their life and could analysise her data more accuratelly.
+ Observations of children during play, at school and during their free time adds to ecological validity and real world application, as it is in a natural setting, participants behaviurs is life like and everydday, therefore it has no negative affect on the results

Question 105

Punch AO3 -

Answer 105

• lack of reliability and replication, the data collected are based on Punch experiences and her interactions with all the participants. No other researcher would have made the same relationship or found the same results so the researcher is subjective showing bias, it cannot be replicated so the results cannot be scientifically confirmed.
• children might have shown social desirability, because they wanted Punch to like them, therefore the validity of the results is put in the question.
• the data collected in the study for example, the PRA takes an emic approach to research which can be culturally biased and so the findings may not improve our understanding for all cultures in development psychology.

Question 106

Clinical interviews AO1

Answer 106

• a clinical interview is a conversation between a profesional and a patient. It is initially intended to develop a diagnosis. The interview can be structured (questions have to be the same and asked in the same maner) , semi-structured (combination of both, structured questions are asked but patient ha the opportunity to explore them further based on their situation) and unstructured (the professional determines what kind of questions to ask during the interview)
  The purpose of the inteview is to gather relevant information about the individuals past and current situation.

Question 107

Initial interview AO1

Answer 107

• the profesional gahers basic information, about the pationet, demographic info, medical history, social support, personal questions.

Question 108

Mental status exam A01

Answer 108

• its a standard tool used by profesionals to assess the basic functionning of a client.
  The assessment categories include mood, cognition, perception, thoughts, behaviours, insight, and judgement.

Question 109

Clinical interviews A03

Answer 109

+ allows for more rich, qualititative data, children can give reasons for their answers. Psychologists can also clarify questions if the child doesnt understand what is being asked. Which leads to more valid data and results.
+ well trained psychologists are aware of leading questions and know how to pitch their questions to a young child, so that they understand what is being asked. Increasing internal validity, we can also trust the answers the child gives to be truthful.
+ if the researcher uses a semi structured interview with some pre planned questions but allows for some flexibility this allows for both replication and then qualitative detal as well from open questions.

Question 110

Clinical Interviews AO3

Answer 110

• children are very likely to fall to social desirability in the intense need to be liked and accepted by the adult. This may mean they give false answers so that they can be seen as ,,good’’, which decreases the validity of the results of the interview.
• interviews are much more time consuming, and they can be tricky to analysie later, especially id the interview and the child are not filmed, because certain details from the answer of the questions of face expression can be missed and therefore wrong results made.
• Strong chances for research bias, the researches becomes heaviley involved that they accidently lead the questions in such a way to encourage the children to give a certain response. For example, the experiment of Bowlbys 44 thieves, Bowlby was heavily involved in the experiment which resulted in the research bias.