Psychology/Sociology (Concepts 6A, 6B, 6C) Flashcards
sensory processing
the process of first taking in the stimuli through our senses and then interpreting the stimuli in the brain
threshold
the minimum stimulation required to sense a stimuli
Weber’s Law
states that a change in a stimulus that will be just noticeable is a constant ratio of the original stimulus
signal detection theory
states that humans will detect a signal based on two factors: how large the stimulus is and how much attention the person is paying it
sensory adaptation
when our senses become adapted to certain stimuli that we don’t pay attention to it
cornea
the outermost layer of the eye responsible for protecting the eye and the majority of light refraction
aqueous humor
fluid between the cornea and lens that also refracts light
iris
the colored portion of the eye that controls how much light gets in the eye
pupil
opening in the eye that allows light to enter
lens
focuses light and allows the eye to focus on closer and farther objects
sclera
outer layer of the inner eyer that attaches the eye to muscle and allows the eyer to move
ciliary body
connects the eye to the choroid and changes the shape of the lens during accommodation
retina
the inner layer of the eye that contains rods and cones used for the detection of light
vitreous humor
jelly-like fluid in the inside of the eye that allows the eye to keep its shape
mucula
small portion of the retina that detects the light from objects directly in front of you
fovea
a small point in the macula that is where cones are concentrated
optic nerve
the nerve that takes the signals from the rods and cones and sends them to the brain
rods
cells containing the photopigment rhodopsin located in the peripheral of the retina that do not detect any color but are used during low-resolution and night vision situations
parallel processing
brains ability to process more than one stimulus at a time
feature detection
how the brain filters and sorts different stimuli based on their relevance and importance
auricle
external cartilaginous part of the ear that capturs sound
external auditory meatus
the passage in the external ear that transmits sound towards the middle ear
tympanic membrane
the eardrum that converts the sound waves into vibrations that vibrate the ossicles
ossicles
three small bones in the middle ear that amplifies and transmits sound vibrations to the oval window in the cochlea
malleus
the “hammer” ossicle that is attached to the eardrum
incus
the middle ossicle connecting the malleus and stapes
stapes
the third ossicle that is connected to the cochlea via the oval window
eustachian tube
a tube that connects the middle ear to the pharynx to help equalize the pressure int he ear
oval window
a thin diaphragm in the cochlea that transmits oscillations to the fluid in the cochlea
semicircular canal
the organ in the ear consisting of three tubular loops oriented in the three spatial planes that detect the angular acceleration and deceleration from rotation via the shifts in fluid in the canals
vestibule
the organ in the inner ear that detects the linear acceleration from moving in a straight line… contains two primary receptor organs (utricle and saccule) that detect the change in movement through tiny crystals attached to hairs in a gelatinous liquid
choroid
the pigmented vascular layer of the eye between the retina and sclera
accommodation
when the lens bends to focus on objects that are differing distances away
cones
cells containing photopigments/photopsins located in the center of the retina that detect red, green, and blue colors and are used during high-resolution and day vision situations
myopia
nearsightedness; inability to focus on objects at a far distance but can be fixed using concave lenses
hyperopia
farsightedness; inability to focus on objects at a close distance but can be fixed using concave lenses
cochlea
the organ in the inner ear that detects sound via the changes in fluid which bend the cilia hair fibers located in the basilar membrane within this organ
basilar membrane
positions the hair cells in the cochlear fluid so that they can sense variable sounds frequencies.. low frequencies are detected near the apex of the cochlea; high sound frequencies are detected near the base/round window of the cochlea
organs of corti
lies on top of the basilar membrane and contains the hair cells
hair cells
detects movement in the fluid of the cochlea and send electrical signals to the brain
round window
the base of the cochlea that relieves pressure caused by the movement of fluid in the cochlea
mechanotransduction
the transformation of the mechanical force into electrical signals
tympanic cavity
the thin air-filled compartment in the middle ear that is surrounded by bone and is separated from the external ear by a thin tympanic membrane (tympanum) and is in direct communication with the pharynx via the auditory tube
cochlear nerve
the nerve that takes auditory information from the cochlea to the brain
vestibular nerve
the nerve that takes vestibular information (information about the body’s position in space, balance, and acceleration) from the vestibule cavity to the brain
somatosensation
consists of all sensations received from the skin and mucous membranes, as well as, from the limbs and joints
Merkel’s disk
a type of mechanoreceptor that is found in the base of the epidermis of both skin that has hair and glabrous skin and responds to light touch
Meissner’s corpuscle
tactile receptors found in the upper dermis and base of the epidermis of both types of skin that respond to fine touch and pressure, and also respond to low-frequency vibration or flutter
Ruffini ending
slow-adapting, encapsulated mechanoreceptors that are found in the dermis of both hair and glabrous skin that detect skin stretch and deformations within joints
Pacinian corpuscle
mechanoreceptors found deep in the dermis that sense deep transient (but not prolonged) pressure and high-frequency vibration
Krause end bulb
a mechanoreceptor that is only found in specialized area of the body and detects the cold
Muscle spindles
stretch receptors that detect the amount of stretch, or lengthening of muscles.
Golgi tendon organs
tension receptors that detect the force of muscle contraction.
baroreceptors
receptors in the arteries, veins, and lungs that sense changes in pressure due to blood pressure or air filling up in the lungs
nociceptors
receptors that detect pain
thermoreceptors
receptors located in the dermis, skeletal muscles, liver, and hypothalamus, that are activated by different temperatures.
free nerve endings
an unencapsulated dendrite of sensory neurons that are sensitive to painful stimuli, to hot and cold, and to light touch.
glabrous skin
skin without hair (the palms of the hand and the soles of the feet)
epidermis
upper layer of the skin
dermis
inner layer of the skin
gustation
sense of taste
olfaction
sense of smell
olfactory epithelium
a collection of specialized olfactory receptors in the back of the nasal cavity
olfactory receptors
a dendrite of a specialized neuron that responds when it binds certain molecules inhaled from the environment by sending impulses directly to the olfactory bulb of the brain
odorants
odor molecules enter the nose and dissolve in the olfactory epithelium,
bipolar neurons
neurons with two processes from the cell body
olfactory bulb
a neural structure of the forebrain involved in olfaction
pheromone
a chemical released by an animal that affects the behavior or physiology of animals of the same species
vomeronasal organ (aka Jacobson’s organ)
a tubular, fluid-filled, olfactory organ present in many vertebrate animals that sits adjacent to the nasal cavity and is very sensitive to pheromones
taste bud
a cluster of gustatory receptors that are located within the papillae
papillae
the bumps on the tongue
circumvallate papillae
papillae located towards the back of the tongue or in adjacent structures of the palate
fungiform papillae
papillae located in the middle of the tongue
filiform papillae
papillae located towards the front tip of the tongue
foliate papillae
leaf-like papillae located in parallel folds along the edges and toward the back of the tongue
tastants
food molecules that dissolve in saliva and bind with and stimulate the microvilli
salty tastant
provides the sodium ions (Na+) that enter the taste neurons and excite them directly
sour tastant
tastants that are acids and belong to the thermoreceptor protein family and trigger a change in the ion channel and these increase hydrogen ion (H+) concentrations in the taste neurons,
olfactory neurons
project from the olfactory epithelium to the olfactory bulb as thin, unmyelinated axons
glomeruli
neural clusters that receive signals from one type of olfactory receptor (so each glomerulus is specific to one odorant)
mechanoreceptors
receptors that sense stimuli due to physical deformations of their plasma membranes in response to pressure, touch, stretching, and sound
chemoreceptors
chemical receptors
microvilli
hair-like projects on cells
psychophysics
the branch of psychology that deals with the relations between physical stimuli and mental phenomena
proprioceptors
sensory receptors located in the muscles and joints that are responsible for the awareness of the position and movement of the parts of the body
bottom-up processing
the stimulus itself shapes our perception, without any preconceived ideas
top-down processing
our background knowledge and expectations is used to interpret what we sense
perceptual organization
the way information is received by our senses and interpreted to make it meaningful
depth
the ability to see objects in three dimensions, including their size and how far away they are
form
ability to visually perceive objects in the world in response to the patterns of light that they caste on our retinas
motion
inferring the speed and direction of elements in a scene based on stimuli
consistency
tendency to perceive an object one is familiar with as having a constant shape, size, and brightness despite any changes
Gestalt principles
a set of principles for understanding some of the ways perception works
habituation
the getting used to a stimuli you are exposed to constantly
sensitization
when a particular sensation causes a stronger response than it once did
cross-sensitization
when an acquired sensitization of a stimulus causes the sensitization of other stimuli that are closely related to the one you were sensitized to before
absolute detection threshold
the lowest level of intensity required of a stimuli that causes detection of the stimuli
signal detection theory
multiple factors influence whether or not an individual will detect a stimuli including the intensity of the stimuli and their attention on the stimuli
Weber’s law
law that states there is a relationship between the original intensity of a stimulus and the threshold at which humans will detect a change in the intensity of the same stimuli
Just Noticeable Difference
relationship between the original intensity of a stimulus and the threshold at which humans will detect a change in the intensity of the same stimuli
Fechner
the person who coined the term psychophysics
sensation
stimulation of sensor reseptors
perception
the brain’s processing and filtering of the stimuli
Pragnanz principle
humans perceive patterns in what they see
Principle of continuity
when items overlap, humans tend to perceive those items as part of the same object
Principle of proximity
when items are close together humans tend to perceive them as being a part of the same group as opposed to when they are far apart
Principle of similarity
when items look similar humans tend to perceive them as being a part of the same object
Principle of common fate
when items look like they are moving, humans tend to perceive those items are moving at the same speed
Principle of closure
humans tend to “fill in” missing information
selective attention
focusing awareness on one stimulus while tuning out others, not ignoring them completely
divided attention
focusing awareness on more than one stimuli
information processing model
Sensory stimuli are converted to sensory memory which (if you pay attention to it) gets transformed into short-term memory. Short-term memory is then either encoded into long-term memory or lost if not rehearsed. Long-term memory can also be retrieved later or can become lost over time.
Piaget’s stages of cognitive development: sensorimotor stage
- ages 0-2
- children learn by manipulating objects, trial-and-error, using their five senses
- important skills to learn intentional imitation, coordination, object recognition, object permanence
Piaget’s stages of cognitive development: preoperational stage
- ages 2-7 (preschooler age)
- children learn by thinking relationally
- important skills to learn: symbolistic representation, egocentrism (looking at things from outside perspectives), animism (believing objects have thoughts)
Piaget’s stages of cognitive development: concrete operational state
- ages 7-12
- children learn by inductive logical reasoning
- important skills to learn: conversation (quantitative reasoning), classification (separating items by their shared qualities), reversibility (knowing things can be put back in their original place)
Piaget’s stages of cognitive development: formal operational stage
- ages 12 to adulthood
- learn by abstractive thinking
- skills to learn: deductive reasoning, problem-solving, hypothetical scenarios, constructing arguments, metacognition (thinking about thinking)
cognitive changes in late adulthood
- decline in: recall, episodic memory, processing speed, divided attention
- improvements in: emotional reasoning, crystalized IQ, and semantic memory
- stability in: recognition and implicit memories (eg, how to ride a bike)
role of culture in cognitive development
- social milestones such as when a child can start school differ across cultures
- parenting styles differ across cultures
- race and racial stereotypes can affect a child’s cognitive development
schema
mental boxes we can use to organize and interpret information
accommodation
adjusting our schemas to better understand the information we have; its a way to deal with the disequilibrium we face when new information doesn’t match the existing schemas
assimilation
understanding new information based on our current understanding/schemas
trial and error
continue trying different solutions until the problem is solved
algorithmic problem solving
creating a step-by-step problem-solving formula
heuristic problem solving
solving a problem using a general problem-solving framework that also includes shortcuts and working backwards to get to the answer faster
abstraction
refers to solving the problem within a model of the situation before applying it to reality
analogy
is using a solution that solves a similar problem
brainstorming
refers to collecting and analyzing a large amount of solutions, especially within a group of people, to combine the solutions and develop them until an optimal solution is reached
divide and conquer
breaking down large complex problems into smaller more manageable problems
hypothesis testing
an assumption about what would happen in response to manipulating an independent variable is made, and then the analysis of the effects of the manipulation is made and compared to the original hypothesis
lateral thinking
approaching problems indirectly and creatively by viewing the problem in a new and unusual light
means-end analysis
choosing and analyzing an action at a series of smaller steps to move closer to the goal
method of focal objects
putting seemingly non-matching characteristics of different procedures together to make something new that will get you closer to the goal
morphological analysis
analyzing the outputs of and interactions of many pieces that together make up a whole system
proof
trying to prove that a problem cannot be solved… where the proof fails becomes the starting point or solving the problem
reduction
adapting the problem to be as similar problems where a solution exists
research
using existing knowledge or solutions to similar problems to solve the problem
root cause analysis
trying to identify the cause of the problem
heuristics
mental shortcuts that allow people to make fast decisions
biases
disproportionate weight in favor of or against an idea or thing
overconfidence
a well-established bias in which a person’s subjective confidence in their judgments is reliably greater than the objective accuracy of those judgments
belief perseverance
maintaining a belief despite new information that firmly contradicts it
intuition
Intuition is the ability to acquire knowledge, without recourse to conscious reasoning or needing an explanation
intelligence
the mental capacity to learn from experiences, adapt to new situations, understand and handle abstract concepts, and use knowledge to manipulate one’s environment
Spearman’s theory of general intelligence
- there is a general intelligence (G factor) and this g factor can predict the outcomes in various academic areas
- strength: strong evidence that if one person scores well in one area, they will also score well in other areas
- weakness: very controversial… can one single factor contribute to all abilities?
Thurston’s theory of primary mental ability
- there are 7 factors of intelligence (verbal comprehension, word fluency, number facility, spatial visualization, associative memory, perceptual speed and reasoning)
- strength: seems more intuitive to have a breakdown
- weakness: strong evidence that if one person scores well in one area, they will also score well in other areas
Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligence
- there are 7-9 independent intelligences that don’t rely on each other or depend on each other (visual-spatial, linguistic-verbal, logical-mathematical, body-kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalistic, existential)
- strength: accounts for not just book smarts
- weakness: the lines between intelligence and talents start getting blurred and there is no evidence to support it
Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence
- there are three intelligence (creative, practical, analytical)
- strength: real-world success and application, reliably measured
- weakness: strong evidence that if one person scores well in one area, they will also score well in other areas; also are they all the different sides of the same coin
Galton’s theory of intelligence
measuring people’s physical attributes, such as eyesight, strength of grip, hearing, etc., was a valid way of assessing their intelligence
Binet’s idea of mental age
children who could not complete a certain set of tasks were below average… children who could complete tasks that were expected of older children were above average. The test he created is the IQ test.
IQ
- a measure of analytical intelligence
- the average score of the population is 100, so your score tells you where you fall based on the average person
fluid intelligence
ability to reason quickly and abstractly; tends to decrease as we move into adulthood
crystalized intelligence
accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase as we move into adulthood
emotional intelligence
the ability to perceive, understand, and interpret another person’s emotions during interactions with the other person
intelligence
mental quality that allows you to learn from experience, solve problems, and adapt to new situations
conscious
awareness of ourselves and our surroundings
alertness
being fully able to percieve everything around you
daydreaming
awake but not aware of the world around you; similar to light meditation
drowsiness
almost asleep but still semi-aware of the world around you; similar to deep meditation
sleep
start of unconsciousness where you are unaware of anything going on around you
electroencephalogram
a machine that measures brain waves
attention
being able to focus on everything around you
gamma waves
- 31-100 Hz
- poorly understood
- more pronounces with heightened focus and among lifelong meditators
theta waves
- 4-7 Hz
- correlated with drowsiness, hypnosis, some forms of meditation, light sleep
delta waves
- 0.1-3 Hz
- correlated with deep sleep
alpha waves
- 8-15 Hz
- correlated with resting and relaxation
beta waves
- 16-30 Hz
- correlated with normal waking consciousness
sleep cycles
- each cycle lasts about 90-110 minutes in adults
- adults usually go through 3 to 4 cycles per night
N1 sleep stage
- light sleep
- includes hypnotic jerks (involuntary twitches) and hypnagogia (lifelike hallucinations that often involve floating or falling)
- lasts 5-10 minutes
- dominant brain wave: theta
N2 sleep stage
- includes sleep spindles (electrical activity from the thalamus filters sensory input and consolidated memories) and k-complexes (generated in the cortex and suppresses arousal and consolidates memories)
- dominant brain wave: theta
- usually occurs 2x per cycle… takes up most of our sleep time
N3 sleep stage
- slow wave sleep (SWS)
- most important stage for rest and recuperation
- dominant brain wave: delta wave
- most of this stage occurs during the first half of the night
- there is no SWS in infants but it increases by 12 months and then declines at puberty only to steady in the 20s
- men have less SWS than women after the age of 30
REM stage
- rapid eye movement
- most dreaming occurs at this stage
- paradoxical sleep; brain waves function as if we are awake
- most of this stage occurs during the second half of the night
- infants spend about 50% time in REM; adults about 20%
feature detectors
automatic process by which the nervous system attunes to some stimuli more thoroughly than others
fusiform face area
located in the fusiform gyrus in the temporal lobe
first sleep cycle
N1 -> N2 -> N3 -> N2 -> REM
(subsequent sleep cycles don’t always have N3)
benefits of sleep
- correlated with longevity
- memory consolidation occurs during N2, N3, REM
- glial cells shrink allowing waste to be removed more effectively
- sleep assists in mood, energy, creativity, perception, and judgment
- regulates the immune system, cortisol, and appetite
circadian rhythm
- located in the suprachiasmatic nucleus in the hypothalamus
- mediated by melatonin (pineal gland), cortisol (adrenal gland), and neurotransmitter signaling
- integrates sensory input from the retina via daylight; thus artificial light can disrupt this process
- teenagers have a different circadian rhythm compared to adults
theory of dreaming: Freud’s wish-fulfillment
- dreams provide a psychic safety value that we can use to express things that are otherwise unacceptable and our wishes that are hidden in our unconscious
- dreams have two meanings: the manifest content and the hidden meaning
- weakness: lacks any scientific support and dreams may be interpreted in many ways
theory of dreaming: information processing/memory consolidation
- dreams help us sort out the day’s events and consolidate our memories
- weakness: we sometimes dream about things that didn’t happen so…
theory of dreaming: physiological function
- regular brain stimulation from REM sleep may help develop and preserve neural pathways
- weakness: this does not explain why we experience meaningful dreams
theory of dreaming: neural activation/activation-synthesis
- REM sleep triggers neural activity that evokes random visual memories, which our sleeping brain weaves into stories
- weakness: the individual’s brain is weaving stories, which still tells us something about the dreamer
theory of dreaming: cognitive development
- dream content reflects the dreamer’s cognitive developments (their knowledge and understanding)
- weakness: this does not address the neuroscience of dreams
theory of dreaming: evolutionary biology
- dreams are threat simulations that prepare us for the real world
- weakness: some dreams serve no purpose
polysomnography
- multifaceted exam to measure sleep activity
- contains multiple tests: EEG, EKG, EOG, EMG
- performed in a sleep lab
multiple sleep latency test
- test for observing napping behavior
- used to diagnose disorders related to excessive daytime sleeping
- patient instructed to take a 20 minute nap every 2 hours to determine how long it takes them to fall asleep (aka sleep latency)
sleep apnea
- aka. sleep breathing disorder
- men are 2x more likely to have it and 8x more likely to be diagnosed
- prevalence is around 7-10%. 25% among elders
obstructive sleep apnea
- most common subtype of sleep apnea
- related to snoring
- individual’s airway closes but breathing continues causing them to sputter and wake up again
- contributors: kidney disease, alcohol use, obesity, allergies, smoking, enlarged tonsils, genetic predisposition
treatment: lifestyle changes, pressurized air, tonsil retainers, surgery, and sometimes medications decrease H+ secretion (Diamox) or NT adenosine (Theocron)
central sleep apnea
- person’s airway remains open but they stop breathing
- often coincides with brain tumor, stroke, Parkinson’s, opioid use, respiratory disease
- treatment: pressurized air, medications that decrease H+ secretion (Diamox) or NT adenosine (Theocron)
mixed sleep apnea
- among patients with obstructive sleep apnea, once they begin treatment with pressurized air, they can also start experiencing central sleep apnea
- treatment: medication, pressurized air, etc
insomnia
- caused by stress, hyperthyroidism, pain, night shifts, jet lag, menopause, etc
hypersomnolence (CDH)
- characterized by prolonged excessive daytime sleeping (EDS)
- can be caused by sleep apnea or insomnia
- specific diagnoses include: idiopathic hypersomnia, narcolepsy, cataplexy
idiopathic hypersomnia
- can be related to genetic predisposition
- can coincide with tumors, head trauma, depression, ADHD, MS, or epilepsy
- characterized by excessive daytime sleeping and strong urges to nap at unusual times
- most common among teenagers and young adults
narcolepsy
- patient gets the regular amount of sleep in a 24-hour period but their sleep cycles are distributed throughout the day and night
- the is often excessive daytime sleeping
- diagnostic feature: patient can go directly from awake to REM sleep
- causes: genetic predisposition, infections, brain injury
- affects 1 in 2000 people; only 1 in 8000 people are diagnosed
cataplexy
- sudden muscle weakening, collapse, or paralysis while fully conscious
- episodes are triggered by strong emotions
- most people with narcolepsy have cataplexy
- treatment: psychostimulants (modafinil, amphetamines) or anti-depressants
somnambulism
- aka sleepwalking
- patient walks around, eyes wide open, pupils dilated, and sometimes the patient speaks (incoherently)
- episodes are usually under 20 minutes
- often coincides with other sleep or neurological disorders
- no preferred course of treatment
night terrors
- extreme panic or fear during deep sleep usually early at night during N3 stage
- patient wakes up not knowing why they were scared
- most common in children 2-6%; adults have less than 1% prevalence and it becomes rarer with age
- typically not treated
- strong correlation with genetic predisposition
restless leg syndrome
- not the same as hypnic jerks
- patients feel the need, discomfort, and urgency to get up and walk around while resting
- affects 10% of the population; affects women more than men
idiopathic RBD
- occurs in the absence of another neurological disorder
- neurodegenerative
- typically diagnosed after the age of 45
- ofter predictive of other neurological disorders
- 50% of patients with develop Parkinson’s or dementia
parasomnia
sleep disorders that involve unusual perceptions or behaviors while the patient is asleep or on the border of sleep
restless leg syndrome: late onset
- after age 45
- due to underlying medical problems (eg, Parkinson’s, anemia, arthritis, diabetes)
- treatment geared at treating the underlying medical problem
restless leg syndrome: early onset
- before age 45
- strong genetic link; related to basal ganglia dysfunction
- worsens over time
- treated with physical therapy, massages, dopamine agonists, and gabapentin
REM sleep behavior disorder (RBD)
- unusual REM sleep where the patient is not paralyzed
- patient “acts out” their dreams while lying down (thrashing, gesturing, etc)
- RBD caused by neurological irregularities
- way more common in men (85% males)
secondary/symptomatic RBD
- disorder occurs alongside other neurological disorders (eg, narcolepsy, brain injury, MS, etc)
- typically diagnosed after the age of 45 but can also occur in children and adults
sleep hygiene
- limit naps to 30 minutes
- avoid stimulants in the afternoon and evening
- get exposure to sunlight
- don’t work in bed
- establish a regular bedtime routine
- keep a comfortable sleep environment (slightly cooler/ under 70 degrees)
- if you can fall asleep, don’t fight it
hypnosis
- can only occur if the person wants to be hypnotized
- involves getting people to relax and focus on a particular spot or bodily function
- in that state people become more open to suggestions
- brain function: alpha brain waves occur indicating an awake but relaxed state
- used to retrieve memories, refocus attention, pain treatment, etc
meditation
- self-regulating attention and awareness
- guided or focused on something particular or unfocused
- brain function: increase in alpha waves; experienced meditators also have theta waves
- can lead to increased activity in the prefrontal cortex, right hippocampus, and right anterior insula of people even when they are not meditating
stimulants
- tend to activate neurons
- increase CNS activity, increase HR and BP, increase processing speed
- withdrawals lead to tiredness, lethargy, lack of motivation, mental slowness
depressants
- tend to deactivate neurons
- decrease CNS activity, decrease HR and BP, decrease processing speed
hallucinogens
- tend to distort perceptions and can cause hallucinations and increased sensations
- they can increase or decrease mood and energy
opiates
- decrease CNS activity, decrease HR and BP, and also inhibit GI motility
- analgesic; reduce perceptions of pain
- mimics natural endorphins; binds to mu-opioid receptors
- prescribed as painkillers and have strong sedation effects
caffiene
- aka coffee
- effects: increases energy and alertness and can increase irritability and activates SNS
- mechanism: antagonist to adenosine receptors
cocaine
- refined form of coca leaf, snorted as a powder or smoked as ionic salt
- effects: strong versions of a typical stimulant but with an additional sense of euphoria, grandiosity, and invincibility
- sympathetic effects can cause a fatal overdose via a heart attack
- mechanism: blocks reuptake of dopamine leading to increased dopamine levels; also blocks reuptake of norepinephrine and epinephrine leading to sympathetic stimulation
tobacco/nicotine
- aka. cigarettes
- the active substance is called nicotine
- effects: sympathetic stimulant leading to increased heart rate, vasoconstriction, hypertension, increased alertness, focus, decreased appetite
- unlike other stimulants, it can also increase calmness and relaxation
- mild, moderately long-lasting effects
- notoriously hard to quit
- mechanism: agonist to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors; also triggers glutaminergic neurons activating dopaminergic neurons
amphetamines
- weaker ones, such as Adderall, can be prescribed for medical conditions such as ADHD
- typically has effects similar to cocaine but long-lasting while also increasing body temperature, teeth grinding, and dry mouth
- abuse can lead to amphetamine psychosis which includes extreme paranoia, delusions/hallucinations, mania
- mechanism: reverses the direction of dopamine reuptake transported leading to increased dopamine plus the blocage of dopamine reuptake; also reverser norepinephrine transporter leading to sympathetic stimulation
MDMA
- aka ecstasy
- mechanism: reverses dopamine and norepinephrine reuptake transporters but also strongly reverses serotonin transporter
-has weaker amphetamine-type effects while also having stronger feelings of empathy, unity, and affection toward other people
also increases tactile sensation
- it is neurotoxic and cardiotoxic and can cause depression-like hangovers
phonological loop
part of the working memory that processes word and number input
sensory memory
temporary register of all the stimuli you are taking in and only lasts seconds
short-term memory
aka working memory; you can only hold 5-9 pieces of information at a time in this memory
long-term memory
memories that are saved in the brain and can be retrieved later on as needed
visuospatial sketch pad
part of working memory that processes visual and spatial information
iconic memory
sensory memory related to what we see that only lasts less than .5 seconds
echoic memory
sensory memory related to what we hear which only lasts around 3 to 4 seconds
marijuana
- active ingredients: TCH and CBD
- mechanism: mimics endocannabinoid neurotransmitters; Cb1 receptor agonist; inhibitor of the inhibitor of dopamine release
- effects: euphoria, relaxation, enhanced auditory/visual sensation, rapid heart rate, increased appetite, decreased nausea, dry mouth, impaired learning/memory, increased anxiety/paranoia,
- can increase the risk of schizophrenia and can prevent epileptic seizures in some patients
barbituates
- mechanism: enhances GABA response duration; inhibits the inhibitor of dopamine release leading to pleasure and addiction
- used to treat anxiety and amnesia
- decreases anxiety, relaxation, impaired coordination, slurred speech, impaired memory
benzodiazepine
- mechanism: enhances GABA receptor sensitivity; inhibits the inhibitor of dopamine release leading to pleasure and addiction
- used to treat anxiety and amnesia
- decreases anxiety, relaxation, impaired coordination, slurred speech, impaired memory (same as barbituates)
- most commonly prescribed drugs
alcohol
- mechanism: mimics GABA and acts as GABA agonist leading to inhibition; also acts as a glutamate antagonist leading to less excitation; also inhibits GABA-releasing neurons in the nucleus accumbens that typically inhibit dopamine release
- effects: euphoria, impaired judgments and reaction time, lowered social inhibitions, impaired memory, impaired coordination, slurred speech
- withdrawals: insomnia, GI upset, tremors, delirium tremens (halluciantions+seizures)
- can also lead to Korsakoff’s syndrome
Korsakoff’s syndrome
damage to the hippocampus from vitamin B1 (thiamine) depletion resulting in anterograde amnesia
central executive
coordinates information from both the visuospatial sketchpad and the phonological loop
episodic buffer
acts as a connector between working memory and long-term memory
explicit memory
aka declarative long-term memory; facts or events you can clearly express
implicit memory
aka non-declarative long-term memory; memories related to things you know how to do but can’t explain how you know
semantic memory
explicit long-term memories related to words and information
episodic memory
explicit long-term memories related to events that happened in the past
procedural memory
implicit memories related to knowing how to do something
priming memory
implicit memories related to how previous experiences influence how you know to do something new
role rehearsal
saying the same thing over and over again
chunking
grouping information into meaningful categories
mnemonic devices
memory aids that help you link what you are learning to what you already know; includes imagery, acronyms, pegword, and methods of loci
self-referencing
taking new information and connecting it to how it relates to you
spacing
spreading out what you are studying over time rather than cramming it all at once
retrieval cues
stimuli that assist in memory retrieval; includes being out in the same context as when you were studying, priming, being in the same state as you were in while studying, etc
cued recall
producing memories with some help of retrieval cues
free recall
producing the memories and information you know without any help
recognition
producing information you know by recognizing it in a list that is given to you
primacy effect
remembering the first few items on the list better than the rest
recency effect
remembering the last few items on the list better than the rest
seriel position effect
the phenomenon that people are able to recall the first and last items on the list better than the items in the middle of the list
memory reconstruction
memories are modified every time we retrieve it based on our mood, goals, envirnment, etc
source monitoring
keeping track of where various information came from
flashbulb memories
highly emotional memories that seem very vivid
decaying
memories decay the more you dont retrieve and use them
dementia
excessive damage to brain damage that leads to cognitive decline
Alzhimer’s disease
in this disease, people’s neurons die off over time leading to the shrinking of their cerebral cortex, the build-up of amyloid plaques, and loss of memories, attention, planning, language, abstract thinking, and control of bodily functions
interference
when something is blocking our ability to get to the memory we want
retroactive interference
interference that goes backward; new information blocks out old information that you are trying to recall
proactive interference
interference that goes forward; old information keeps replacing the new information you are trying to recall
neural plasticity
the capacity of the nervous system to modify itself, functionally and structurally, in response to experience and injury
long-term potentiation
a process involving persistent strengthening of synapses that leads to a long-lasting increase in signal transmission between neurons
semantic networks
information is stored in the brain in terms of connected ideas
nativist theory of language acquisition
we are born with something in our genes that allows us to learn language; there is a “language acquisition device” (LAD) somewhere in our brains that is responsible for learning a language and there is a “universal grammar” that is shared across differing languages, because this grammar is part of our genetic make-up
learning theory of language acquisition
children learn a language through repetition and reinforcement
interactionist approach of language acquisition
children learn language out of a desire to communicate with the world around them and language is dependent upon social interaction; our language ability develops out of a desire to communicate, and language is dependent upon whom we want to communicate with
Broca’s area
region of the brain where we form speech
Wernicke’s area
region of the brain where we understand speech
Broca’s aphasia
aka non-fluent aphasia; broken speech due to damage in the Broca’s area of the brain
Wernicke’s aphasia
people with this aphasia can produce words but they are incoherent and don’t make sense
global aphasia
damage to both Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area causing both types of aphasia at the same time
arcuate fascialius
a bundle of fibers connecting the Broca’s area and the Wernicke’s area
conduction aphasia
results from damage to the arcuate fasciculus leading to the patients not being able to repeat things even though the understand what is being said
agraphia
inability to write
anomia
inability to name things
split-brain patient
a patient whose corpus coliseum has been cut down the middle causing the two sides of the brain to not interact with each other; as language is located in the left side of the brain, patients will not be able to name things from the one side of the visual field until it is moved to the other side, etc
universalism theory
the theory that thought comes before language; your thought dictates/determines what language we come up with completely
Piaget’s theory of language and cognition
the theory that thought has some influence on language; children’s cognitive development influences their language development
Vygotsky’s theory of language and cognition
the theory that language and thought are independent but converge through development; children develop language through social interaction with adults and through those interactions they learn to connect those thoughts and language
weak linguistic determinism
language influences thought and makes it easier for us to think in certain ways based on how the language is structured
strong linguistic determinism
aka. Worfian hypothesis; language determines thought completely
the three components of emotion
- cognitive: mental assessment of what’s happening
- physiological: every emotion produces a different physiological response in the body (eg. fear can make you sweat, increase heart rate, etc)
- behavioral: every emotion causes a different behavior from us
six universal emotions
happy; sad; fear; disgust; anger; surprise
Cannon-Bard theory of emotion
the physiological response and the emotion occur at the same time
James-Lange theory of emotion
the experience of emotion is due to the perception of our physiological response/changes
Schacter-Singer theory of emotion
after a physiological response, we think about and label to reason for the physiological response and then we feel the emotion
Lazarus’ theory of emotion
the experience of emotion depends on how the event is appraised and after the appraisal of the situation, we produce a physiological response as well as feel the emotion
limbic system and emotion
- hypothalamus = regulates the ANS; fight/flight and rest/digest
- amygdala = produces emotions of fear, anger, anxiety, and violence; destruction of this region can lead to patients feeling mellow
- thalamus = relay system of the brain so sensory inputs related to emotions all go through there
- hippocampus = converts short-term memory to long-term memory
Kluver-Bucy syndrome
a syndrome where both sides of the amygdala is destroyed causing patients to feel very mellow, hyperorality, hypersexuality, and disinhibited behavior
left hemisphere and emotions
more activated with positive emotions and when kids are sociable
right hemisphere and emotions
more activated with negative emotions and when kids are more isolative
prefrontal cortex and emotions
helps manage how you behave on your emotions
ANS and emotions
- sympathetic nervous system: fight/flight
- parasympathetic nervous system: rest/digest
stressor
environmental threats and challenges
stress reaction
how we cope with the stressors
primary appraisal
the appraisal of stress in the moment; irrelevant, benign, and threatening
secondary appraisal
the appraisal of how we will be able to deal with the stressor; the appraisal of harm, threat, challenge
significant life change
one of the major stressors that everyone will go through at some point
catastrophic events
a major stressor where you have unpredictable life events that everyone thinks are stressful
daily hassles
a major stressor that consists of seemingly minor events of daily life that cause stress
ambient stressors
a major stressor that consists of global stressors that everyone deals with and are a part of everyday life that you put in the back of your mind (eg. pollution)
general adaptation syndrome
three phases we go through when dealing with stress:
- alarm
- resistance
- exhaustion
physical effects of stress
- increases blood pressure, vascular disease, CAD
- increase blood sugar
- inflammation, more susceptibility to illness
- bad reproductive health
behavioral effects of stress
- depression, anhedonia
- learned helplessness
- anger
- anxiety
- addiction to drugs as a coping mechanism
stress management
- having perceived control
- having good social support
- having optimism
- exercising daily
- meditation
- religion and spirituality
- cognitive flexibility
top-down processing
perceiving things based on your prior experiences and knowledge; experiences influence perception
bottom-up processing
the stimuli being processed in the part of the brain responsible for that sense, and then deriving meaning from analysis based only on data; stimulus influences perception
