Psychology/Sociology (Concept 8A, 8B, 8C) Flashcards
self-concept
an overarching idea we have about who we are—physically, emotionally, socially, spiritually, and in terms of any other aspects that make up who we are
identity
encompasses the memories, experiences, relationships, and values that create one’s sense of self
social identity
the portion of an individual’s self-concept derived from perceived membership in a relevant social group
self-esteem
how we value and perceive ourselves
self-efficacy
reflects confidence in the ability to exert control over one’s own motivation, behavior, and social environment
external locus of control
the degree to which people believe that external forces have control over the outcome of events in their lives
internal locus of control
the degree to which people believe that they have control over the outcome of events in their lives
types of identities
race, religion, ethnicity, gender, sex, sexual orientation, etc.
theories of identity development
Erik Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development (specifically the Identity versus Role Confusion stage), James Marcia’s identity status theory, and Jeffrey Arnett’s theories of identity formation in emerging adulthood
imitation
the action of using someone or something as a model
role-taking
the capacity to imagine another person’s perspective, and how one is viewed by others
reference group
a group that individuals look to for “reference” or influence
fundamental attribution error
cognitive attribution bias where observers underemphasize situational and environmental factors for the behavior of an actor while overemphasizing dispositional or personality factors
culture in attribution
people from Western cultures tend to make more personal attributions, whereas people from collectivistic cultures tend to focus more on the situational explanations of behavior
stigma
a mark of disgrace associated with a particular circumstance, quality, or person
stereotype
a widely held but fixed and oversimplified image or idea of a particular type of person or thing
ethnocentrism
evaluation of other cultures according to preconceptions originating in the standards and customs of one’s own culture
cultural relativism
the ability to understand a culture on its own terms and not to make judgments using the standards of one’s own culture
emotion in prejudice
that anger and disgust amplified the negative attitudes toward different groups, but in specific ways
cognition in prejudice
cognitive processes are crucial in dealing with bias and prejudice; can help decrease prejudice
self-fulfilling prophecy
an expectation or belief that can influence your behaviors, thus causing the belief to come true
stereotype threat
the risk of confirming negative stereotypes about an individual’s racial, ethnic, gender, or cultural group which can create high cognitive load and reduce academic focus and performance
achieved status
position that a person can acquire on the basis of merit and is earned
ascribed status
the social status of a person that is assigned at birth or assumed involuntarily later in life
role conflict
there is tension among multiple roles that are mutually exclusive
role strain
there is tension that occurs in one role
role exit
an individual stops engaging in a role previously central to their identity and begins the process of establishing a new identity
primary group
a group held together by relationships formed by family and environmental associations, regarded as basic to social life and culture
secondary group
groups of people who are not related or emotionally connected, yet work together to achieve a common interest, purpose or goal
in group
an exclusive, typically small, group of people with a shared interest or identity
out group
consists of anyone who does not belong to your group
dyads
group of two
triad
group of three
ideal bureaucracy
everyone is treated equally and work responsibilities are divided by each team’s areas of expertise
iron law of oligarchy
all forms of organization, regardless of how democratic they may be at the start, will eventually and inevitably develop oligarchic tendencies, thus making true democracy practically and theoretically impossible, especially in large groups and complex organizations
McDonaldization
the process of a society adopting the characteristics of a fast-food restaurant
expressing and detecting emotion
done using facial expression, body posture, gestures, voice tone, and touch
gender and emotion
differences in emotional expression may be primarily due to cultural expectations of femininity and masculinity
front stage self
behavior when they know that others are watching
back stage self
behavior when people aren’t watching
verbal communication
a type of communication where we use spoken and written words to get our message and information across to the other person
nonverbal communication
encompasses a diverse range of signals that go beyond spoken language, such as gestures, facial expressions, body language, and vocal nuances like tone and rhythm
animal signals and communication
animal communication includes visual; auditory, or sound-based; chemical, involving pheromones; or tactile, touch-based, cues
attraction
the interest in and liking of one individual by another, or the mutual interest and liking between two or more individuals
attachment
a deep and enduring emotional bond that connects one person to another across time and space
aggression
behavior aimed at harming others physically or psychologically
social support
everyday behaviors that, whether directly or indirectly, communicate to an individual that she or he is valued and cared for by others
foraging behavior
all the methods by which an organism acquires and utilizes sources of energy and nutrients
mating behavior
includes mate choice, intrasexual competition for mates, and parental care
mate choice
evolve when the choosier sex experiences fitness advantages by selecting mates based on particular traits
applying game theory
game theory is widely applied to study human as well as animal behaviors
altruism
disinterested and selfless concern for the well-being of others
inclusive fitness
a method of measuring evolutionary success
dramaturgical approach
a sociological perspective that analyzes micro-sociological accounts of everyday social interactions through the analogy of performativity and theatrical dramaturgy, dividing such interactions between “actors”, “audience” members, and various “front” and “back” stages
individual discrimination
the behavior of individual members of one race/ethnic/gender group that is intended to have a differential and/or harmful effect on the members of another race/ethnic/gender group
institutional discrimination
the behavior of an institution that is intended to have a differential and/or harmful effect on the members of another race/ethnic/gender group
prejudice
preconceived opinion that is not based on reason or actual experience
discrimination
the unjust or prejudicial treatment of different categories of people
