Psychology/Sociology (Concept 7A, 7B, 7C) Flashcards
neurons
nerve cells that send messages all over your body to allow you to do everything from breathing to talking, eating, walking, and thinking
reflex arc
the pathway by which a reflex travels—from the stimulus to sensory neuron to motor neuron to reflex muscle movement
neurotransmitters
endogenous chemicals that allow neurons to communicate with each other throughout the body
peripheral nervous system
part of your nervous system that lies outside your brain and spinal cord
central nervous system
part of your nervous system that is your brain and spinal cord
forebrain
controls body temperature, reproductive functions, eating, sleeping, and the display of emotions
midbrain
the smallest portion of the brainstem (about 1.5 cm) and its most cranial structure and is associated with vision, hearing, motor control, sleep/wake, arousal (alertness), and temperature regulation, acting as a sort of relay station for auditory and visual information
hindbrain
a developmental categorization of portions of the central nervous system in vertebrates; includes the medulla, pons, and cerebellum; supports vital bodily processes.
cerebrum
the largest part of your brain, and it handles a wide range of responsibilities; instrumental in day-to-day activites
spinal cord
a long, tube-like band of tissue connecting your brain to your lower back
lateralization of cortical functions
the left and right sides of the brain are specialised to attend to different information, to process sensory inputs in different ways and to control different types of motor behaviour
methods of studying the brain
fMRI uses very powerful magnets and can localize brain activity changes to regions as small as one cubic millimeter
EEG measures brain waves
PET shows how the brain and its tissues are working
neurotransmitters and behavior
neurotransmitters play some role in behavior, including the neuropeptides; most commonly implicated in behavior modulation are the small molecular transmitters norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin.
components of the endocrine system
multiple glands throughout the body
endocrine system and behavior
endocrine system releases hormones, and hormones impact the systems that cause changes in our behavior, including changes in what we might call biological motivations
behavioral genetics
the study of the manner in which genetic variation affects psychological phenotypes (traits), including cognitive abilities, personality, mental illness, and social attitudes.
genes
the basic physical and functional unit of heredity
temperament
consistent individual differences in behavior that are biologically based and are relatively independent of learning, system of values and attitudes
heredity
the passing on of traits from parents to their offspring
adaptive value of traits and behavior
represents the usefulness of a trait that can help an organism survive in its environment
nature and nurture
describes the question of how much a person’s characteristics are formed by either “nature” or “nurture;” “nature” means innate biological factors (namely genetics), while “nurture” can refer to upbringing or life experience more generally.
experience and behavior
experience has a paradoxical effect on intention-behavior consistency; in some studies, greater experience is associated with weaker intention-behavior relations (due to habit formation), whereas in other studies experience strengthens the relationship between intention and behavior (by stabilizing intentions).
human physiological development
the changes that occur in an organism’s body as it grows and matures
prenatal development
starts with fertilization, in the germinal stage of embryonic development, and continues in fetal development until birth
motor development
the physical growth and strengthening of a child’s bones, muscles, and ability to move and touch his/her surroundings
development in adolescence
includes rapid changes in the brain and body, often at different rates and is a time for healthy exploration of identity and learning independence
psychoanalytic perspective of personality
Freud’s theory: our unconscious self drives our personality
- id = unconscious desires
- ego = reasons between id and superego to make decisions
- super-ego = moral self
humanistic perspective of personality
humans have free will and humans can develop themselves to reach their highest potential/self-actualization; we are inherently good and self-motivated to improve
- eg. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
- eg. Carl Rogers: qualities needed for self-actualization are nurtured early in life in a growth-promoting climate (the person has to be genuine and receive acceptance)
trait perspective of personality
considers the personality of an individual and the number of traits they have
social cognitive perspective of personality
our personalities are fluid and change over time and according to who we are around; they are mainly the results of behaviors that are heavily influenced by observing and judging the actions of other people.
biological perspective of personality
emphasizes the internal physiological and genetic factors that influence personality; personality traits manifest through biology and there is a link between personality, DNA, and processes in the brain; personality is inherited
- eg. evolutionary biological theory: personality is related to the costs associated with passing down genetic material
behaviorist perspective of personality
view personality as shaped by the reinforcements and consequences outside of the organism; people behave consistently based on prior learning
situational approach to explaining behavior
suggests that the way in which people behave will depend on the situation that they are in and the environmental stimulus which surrounds them
schizophrenia disorders
- lifetime prevalence = ~1%
- develops early and gradually
- distortions in perceptions, thinking, communication
- symptoms can be positive (hallucinations), negative (flat affect), cognitive, or mood-relates
- more likely to affect men
- highly genetic
- risk factors: trauma, poverty, immune problems, urban environment
- physiology: underactive front lobe, overactive parietal lobe, unusual dopamine, GABA, serotonin, acetylcholine, glutamate, etc
- treatment: antipsychotics that block dopamine
schizophrenia
when two symptoms occur for 6 months consecutively
delusional disorder
involves delusions but no hallucinations or cognitive problems
schizophreniform
when symptoms are present in 1 to 5 of 6 months
schizoaffective
coincides with mood disorders
bipolar disorders
- aka manic depression
- ~4% lifetime prevalence
- more men with bipolar 1; and more women with bipolar 2
- highly genetic
- risk factors: trauma, substance use, anxiety disorders
- physiology: unique patterns of norepinephrine, dopamine, serotonin and implicated circadian rhythm
- treatment: antipsychotics, mood stabilizers, anti depressants, seizure medication, psychotherapy, lifestyle changes
manic states
euphoric, high energy, impulsive, psychotic and dangerous
rapid cycling
4 or more annual episodes of mania/depression
bipolar 1
mani with or without depression
bipolar 2
hypomania with moderate to severe depression
cyclothymia
hypomania with mild to moderate depression
depression
- 15% lifetime prevalence
- chronically low mood, disturbances in sleep/eating, and negative self-regard
- risk factors: genetics, trauma, low self-esteem, poverty, substance use, chronic illness, being a woman
- physiology: low levels of serotonin, norepinephrine, epinephrine, and dopamine, decreases frontal lobe and nucleus accumbens, hypothyroidism
- treatment: antidepressants and social behavioral treatments
disruptive mood dysregulation disorder
only diagnosed among kids and teens with the main symptom being anger
major depression
intense symptoms that last at least 2 weeks
dysthymia/persistent depressive disorder
symptoms can be mild but last for at least 2 years
premenstrual dysphoric disorder
experienced by around 5% of women of reproductive age during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle
selective mutism
an anxiety disorder where a person is unable to speak in certain social situations; common in children
separation anxiety disorder
a child becomes excessively anxious when separated from parents
agoraphobia
fear of public spaces and leaving home
social anxiety disorder
general or situation-specific fear of people and social interactions
panic attacks
episodes of intense fear and dread
panic disorder
when multiple panic attacks occur and a person fears future panic attacks
panic attack specifier
diagnosis tagg on to indicate the person has a panic attack in addition to the primary diagnosis
anxiety disorder
- 20% prevalence
- risk factors: genetics, anxious role models, trauma, poverty, times of shortage, shyness, women
- physiology: low GABA, serotonin and high cortisol, overactive amygdala
- treatment: benzodiazepine, SBT, psychotherapy, CBT
OCD
- 2-3% prevalence
- disabling obsessions or compulsions where obsessions lead to compensatory compulsions to neutralize the discomfort of obsession
- risk factor: genetics, stress
- physiology: low serotonin and underactive basal ganglia
- treatment: SSRIs, CBT, exposure and response prevention
OCPD
righteous perfectinism and rigidity apprearing in multiple life domains
excoriation
picking of skin
trichotillomania
pulling out hair
hoarding disorder
collecting things and having extreme distress parting from them
body dysmorphia
distress about perceived distortion in face or body
Tourette syndrome and tic disorder
motor disorders that share commonalities with obsessive disorders
illness anxiety disorder
- aka hypochondriasis
- reoccurring fear of having a disease, virus, or other conditions, spending lots of time and money on medical diagnosis
somatic system disorder
a condition where a person’s body expresses what is too threatening to consciously admit or verbalize; a person might lose their mobility rather than say they don’t want to go on a trip
conversion disorder
numbness, paralysis, or other neurological symptoms following an emotional pain
binge eating disorder
- 4% of people affected
- person binges at least a few times a month and feels upset and out of control
bulimia nervosa
- 2% affected
binge then compensate through vomiting, extreme exercise, fasts, laxatives, etc - usually starts in early teens
anorexia
- 1% prevalence
- self-starvation and fear of weight gain
- highest mortality of any mental disorder
- usually starts in the early teens
PTSD
- 4% prevalence
- 3x more common among women
- a complex diagnosis that must include an outside stressor, mood, and cognitive problems
reactive attachment disorder
- begins before age 5
- the result of abuse or neglect
- child shows extreme distress and unusual reactions to caregivers
dissociative identity disorder
- aka multiple personality disorder
- 10x more common in women
- correlated with trauma and abuse
- controversial
- people have an alter ego and don’t remember what happens when another personality takes over
depersonalization
- a sense of unreality following trauma or a period of extreme stress
- the person sees themselves in the 3rd person
- 2% prevalence
Cluster A disorders
awkward and isolated
Cluster B disorder
brash, dramatic, unpredictable
Cluster C disorders
contracted, cautious, constrained
schizoid personality
loner emotionally detached, cold
schizotypal personality
outlandish, eccentric
paranoid personality
chronic mistrust of others that borders on absurd but isn’t delusional
borderline personality
push-pull in relationships; black and white emotions, self-harming tendencies
narcissistic personality
grandiose, needs to bet the best
antisocial personality
sociopathic, lacks empathy, histrionic, attention seeking, seductive
avoidant personality
feels inferior to others
dependant personality
clingy and submissive personality
Alzheimer’s disease
the most common type of dementia; a progressive disease beginning with mild memory loss and possibly leading to loss of the ability to carry on a conversation and respond to the environment; involves parts of the brain that control thought, memory, and language.
Parkinson’s disease
a progressive disorder that affects the nervous system and the parts of the body controlled by the nerves
instinct
an innate, typically fixed pattern of behavior in animals in response to certain stimuli
arousal
an innate, typically fixed pattern of behavior in animals in response to certain stimuli
drives
an urgent basic need pressing for satisfaction, usually rooted in some physiological tension, deficiency, or imbalance
negative feedback systems
occurs when some function of the output of a system, process, or mechanism is fed back in a manner that tends to reduce the fluctuations in the output, whether caused by changes in the input or by other disturbances
needs
some physiological things such as food and water, or they can be subjective and psychological, such as the need for self-esteem
drive reduction theory
the major theory of motivation in the behaviorist learning theory tradition; “drive” is defined as motivation that arises due to a psychological or physiological need, and it works as an internal stimulus that motivates an individual to satiate the drive
incentive theory
a behavioral theory that suggests people are motivated by a drive for incentives and reinforcement
cognitive theory
suggests that people’s interpretations of events cause their reactions to events
need-based theory
describe motivated behavior as individuals’ efforts to meet their needs
biological and sociocultural motivators that regulate behavior
hunger, sex-drive, substance addiction
components of attitude
- cognitive = can be stated in words and focuses on the actual beliefs of a person.
- affective = focusing on emotions
- behavioral = focusing on the actions of a person
link between attitude and behavior
attitude focuses on how one feels, and behavior deals with one’s actions; attitude is expressed via behavior
foot in-the-door phenomenon
a compliance tactic that aims at getting a person to agree to a large request by having them agree to a modest request
role-playing effects
increases in role players’ tendencies to give socially desirable responses within the confines of the situation in which role playing took place
cognitive dissonance theory
perception of contradictory information and the mental toll of it. Relevant items of information include a person’s actions, feelings, ideas, beliefs, values, and things in the environment.
social facilitation
social phenomenon in which being in the presence of others improves individual task performance
deindividuation
phenomenon in which individuals in a group setting believe they cannot be identified under the cover of the crowd, which reduces accountability and results in non-normative behavior
bystander effect
social psychological theory that states that individuals are less likely to offer help to a victim in presence of others
social loafing
the phenomenon of a person exerting less effort to achieve a goal when they work in a group than when working alone
social control
the use of social pressure by parents, police, and other authority figures in society to influence the actions, beliefs, and movements of individuals
peer pressure
when you do something because you want to feel accepted and valued by your friends
conformity
involves a request; going along with people of equal status; relies on the need to be socially accepted
obedience
involves an order; obeying someone of a higher status; relies on social power
group polarization
refers to the tendency for a group to make decisions that are more extreme than the initial inclination of its members
groupthink
occurs when a group of individuals reaches a consensus without critical reasoning or evaluation of the consequences or alternatives
social norms
shared standards of acceptable behavior by groups
sanction
actions taken in response to behaviors deemed abnormal by society
folkways
behaviors that are learned and shared by a social group that we often refer to as “customs” in a group that are not morally significant, but they can be important for social acceptance
mores
strongly held norms or customs
taboos
a strong social prohibition (or ban) against words, objects, actions, or discussions that are considered undesirable or offensive by a group, culture, etc
anomie
the state of mind of a person who has no standards or sense of continuity or obligation and has rejected all social bonds
perspective on deviance
an inevitable part of how society functions; a basis for change and innovation, and it is also a way of defining or clarifying important social norms
differential association
through interaction with others, individuals learn the values, attitudes, techniques, and motives for criminal behavior
labeling theory
that self-identity and the behavior of individuals may be determined or influenced by the terms used to describe or classify them
strain theory
pressure derived from social factors, such as lack of income or lack of quality education, drives individuals to commit crime
fads
an intense and widely shared enthusiasm for something, especially one that is short-lived; a craze
mass hysteria
contagious dissociative phenomena that take place in large groups of people or institutions under conditions of anxiety
riots
a violent offense against public order involving three or more people
agents of socialization
family, mass media, peers, workplace
classical conditioning
the process in which an automatic, conditioned response is paired with specific stimuli
neutral stimuli
a stimulus that at first elicits no response
conditioned stimuli
a stimulus that can eventually trigger a conditioned response
unconditioned stimuli
a stimulus that leads to an automatic response
conditioned response
the learned response to the previously neutral stimulus
unconditioned response
an automatic response to a stimulus
acquisition
the period when the stimulus comes to evoke the conditioned response
extinction
the gradual weakening of a conditioned response that results in the behavior decreasing or disappearing
spontaneous recovery
refers to the re-emergence of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a delay
generalization
the tendency to respond in the same way to different but similar stimuli
discrimination
the ability to perceive and respond to differences among stimuli
operant conditioning
a method of learning that uses rewards and punishment to modify behavior
positive reinforcement
the process of encouraging or establishing a pattern of behavior by offering a reward when the behavior is exhibited
negative reinforcement
when something unpleasant or uncomfortable is removed or taken away to increase the likelihood of the desired behavior
variable-ratio schedule
a partial schedule of reinforcement in which a response is reinforced after an unpredictable number of responses
fixed ratio schedule
the number of times an action must be done in order to receive an award
fixed interval
a set amount of time between occurrences of something like a reward, result, or review
variable interval
involve reinforcement of a target behavior after an interval of time has passed
positive punishment
adding something to the mix that will result in an unpleasant consequence
escape learning
a type of negative reinforcement in which one distances themself once they are presented with an undesirable stimulus or performs a behavior to stop that stimulus once it begins to occur
cognitive learning
the learning processes where individuals acquire and process information
associative learning
a type of learning in which a behavior is linked to a new stimulus
modeling
a technique used in cognitive behavior therapy and behavior therapy in which learning occurs through observation and imitation alone, without comment or reinforcement by the therapist
observational learning
learning that occurs through observing the behavior of others
mirror neurons
a distinctive class of neurons that discharge both when an individual executes a motor act and when he observes another individual performing the same or a similar motor act
elaboration likelihood model
describes a change in attitude as a result of persuasion; when people are strongly motivated and have time to think over a decision, persuasion occurs through the central route, in which they carefully weigh the pros and cons of a choice BUT when people are rushed or the decision is less important to them, they tend to be more easily persuaded by the peripheral route, that is, by features that are more tangential to the decision at hand.
social cognition theory
portions of an individual’s knowledge acquisition can be directly related to observing others within the context of social interactions, experiences, and outside media influences
factors affecting attitude change
changing behavior, social factors, characteristics of message and target
negative punishment
remove a pleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior
avoidance learning
the process of learning to employ avoidance behaviors in certain circumstances
afferent
receptor that detects stimuli
efferent
causes the response to stimuli that were detected
muscle stretch reflex
when muscles are stretched, they contract back very rapidly
grey matter
contains the neuron somas
white matter
contains the myelinated axons
sperm
a torpedo-like cell that is the male sex cell; it is made up of a head containing the DNA with an acrosome and a tail to propel the cell with the mitochondria being between the head and tail providing energy to the tail
egg
huge, round sex cell in women that contains a nucleus; the cell has a thick outer wall (the zona pellucida) that contains a lot of glycoproteins
fertilization
- the sprem binds to the zona pellucida
- the acrosome reaction occurs where the enzymes from the acrosome are released and start digesting the zona pellucida allowing the sperm to get closer to the egg
- when the sperm and egg touch, the cortical reaction occurs where the cortical granules in the egg are ejected and start eating away the zona pellucida to block polyspermy from happening
- the egg cell and sperm cell fuse and the DNA from the sperm cell enters the egg cell and the genetic material fuse
polyspermy
when multiple sperm bing to an egg cell
zygote
right when the sperm cell and egg cell’s genetic material fuse, they form a zygote
cleavage
rapidly after a zygote is formed, it separates into two cells without getting any bigger, and then again into four cells, and then again into eight cells, all the way till you get 32 cells forming a morula; this all occurs while the cells are still in the zona pellucida
morula
32-cell system that is still in the zona pellucida and hasn’t grown in size at all (is the same overall size as a zygote)
compaction
the cells in the morula start getting closer and closer together (while still staying in the zona pellucida) and the cells closer to the outside start to differentiate
differentiation
when cells start looking differently from one another
trophoblasts
cells on the outside of the morula
embryoblasts
cells on the inside of the morula
inner cell mass
eventually, the embryoblasts clum up together so much inside the morula that they create a clump of cell mass while leaving the space in the inside of the morula
blastocoel
empty space inside the morula that occur once the morula has turned into a blastocyst
blastocyst
the name of the cell cluster that forms from the morula
blastulation
once a blastocyst forms, the zona pellucida starts to be broken down and eventually disintegrates; the cells inside the blastocyst start to differentiate more, and a cavity forms inside the embryoblast, and the bottom layer of cells in the embryoblast starts to differentiate
amniotic cavity
empty space in the embryoblast inside the blastocyst
hypoblast
bottom layer of cells in the embryoblast that differentiate during the blastulation inside the blastocyst
epiblast
the layer of cells in the blastocyst that is above the hypoblast
bilaminar disk
the disk of hypoblast under the epiblast
primitive streak
a line that forms on the bilaminar disk where the cells from the epiblast start to migrate down into the bilaminar disk and into the hypoblast forming a trilaminar disk of germ layers (ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm)
ectoderm
the outermost germ layer
mesoderm
the middle germ layer
endoderm
the innermost germ layer
internal attribution
tendency to assign responsibility for others’ behaviors due to their inherent characteristics
external attribution
tendency to assign responsibility for others’ behaviors due to their external circumstances; the behavior of the person isn’t consistent in all circumstances but changes based on the situation
id
the unconscious part of the mind that demands immediate gratification
ego
part of both unconscious and conscious parts of the mind that is involved in our perception, thoughts, and judgments and seeks long-term gratification
superego
develops around age four and is the moral compass/conscience.
psychoanalytical theory
out childhood experiences and unconscious desires influence behavior (old age parrots love grapes)
libido
the natural energy source that fuels the mechanisms of the mind
fixation
getting stuck in one of the psychosexual stages causing lifelong conflicts to occur
oral stage of psychosexual development
- first stage of development
- age: 0-1
- libido focused on the mouth
- development: feed = trust
- fixation: issues with dependency or aggression (ie, smoking, nail-biting, overeating)
anal stage of psychosexual development
- second stage of development
- age: 1-3 years old
- libido focused on the anus
- development: potty training = independence
- fixation: issues with orderliness and messiness
phallic stage of psychosexual development
- third stage of development
- ages 3-6
- libido focused on the genitals
- development: Electra and Orpheus complex
- fixation: issues with sexual dysfunction and homosexuality and exhibitionism
genial stage of psychosexual development
- fifth stage of development
- ages 12+
- libido focused on the genitals
- development: sexual mating
- fixation: no adult fixation; healthy individual is all the other stages are completed properly
latent stage of psychosexual development
- fourth stage of development
- ages 6 -12
- libido not focused
- development: social and communication skills
- fixation: doesn’t develop to adult fixation
Electra complex
fixations and possessiveness of young girls to other fathers and need to compete with the mother for the father’s affection
Opherus complex
fixations and possessiveness of young boys to other mothers and need to compete with the fathers for mother’s affection
trust vs mistrust
- stage: 1
- age: 1
- virtue: hope
- negative outcome: fear or suspicion
autonomy vs doubt
- stage: 2
- age: 2
- virtue: will
- negative outcome: shame
initiative vs guilt
- stage: 3
- age: 3-5
- virtue: purpose
- negative outcome: inadequacy
industry vs inferiority
- stage: 4
- age: 6-12
- virtue: competence
- negative outcome: inferiority
identity vs role confusion
- stage: 5
- age: 12-18
- virtue: fidelity
- negative outcome: rebellion
intimacy vs isolation
- stage: 6
- age: 18-40
- virtue: love
- negative outcome: isolation, unhappiness
generativity vs stagnation
- stage: 7
- age: 40-65
- virtue: care
- negative outcome: unproductiveness
integrity vs despair
- stage: 8
- age: 65+
- virtue: wisdom
- negative outcome: despair, dissatisfaction
level one: basic physiological need
physiological: food, water, shelter, etc
level two: basic safety
need for safety: safety of appointment, safety of resources, etc
level three: social needs
need love
level four: respect
need for respect and self-esteem
level five: full potential
need for morality, acceptance, and creativity
