Psychology Exam review part 2 Flashcards
- Describe the three parts of the neuron.
- cell body
- dendrites
- Axon
- Describe the three kinds of neurons and compare their functions.
- Sensory – carry messages IN from the body’s sensory receptors to CNS (central nervous system) for processing: afferent direction – from outside CNS to inside CNS. Quantity: 2-3 million
- Motor – carry messages away from the brain and spinal cord and towards muscles that control their flexion and extension. Efferent direction – from inside the CNS to outside CNS. Quantity: 2-3 million
- Interneurons – (in the brain and spinal cord) process information between the sensory input and motor output. Within CNS: neuron to neuron. Quantity: 10-100 billion
To reverse effects of neurotoxic venom from a snakebite, which of the following actions would likely be most effective?
give the patient a substance that would allow the body to resume transmission of acetylcholine.
explain what happens to neurotransmitters after transmission.
3 possibilities
- decomposed by specific enzyme - reuptake – the process whereby neurotransmitter molecules that have been released into the synapse are reabsorbed into the axon terminals of the presynaptic neuron - continues binding
what are the main neurotransmitters
glutamate
GABA
Dopamine
Serotonin
epinephrine and norepinephrine
endorphin
Describe the functions of the neurotransmitters.
Glutamate – most common excitatory neurotransmitter. Used in formation of new memories. Implicated in triggering epileptic seizures.
GABA (Gamma-amino butyric acid) – the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter. Lowers arousal, anxiety, excitation. Facilitates sleep.
Acetylcholine (Ach) – involved in muscle action, learning and memory. Deterioration of Ach neurons implicated in Alzheimer’s disease.
Dopamine – influences movement, learning, attention and emotion. Oversupply linked to schizophrenia. Undersupply linked to Parkinson disease.
Serotonin – influences mood, hunger, sleep and arousal. Undersupply linked to depression.
Epinephrine and norepinephrine – both are catecholamine chemicals with very similar structures. Complimentary pair play major role in sympathetic NS reactions (responding to emergencies, alertness, arousal and mood). Sam chemical used in endocrine system (adrenaline and noradrenaline)
Endorphin – natures pain killer / “natural” morphine. Also involved in emotions in limbic system – E.g. anxiety, fear, tension, pleasure and pain.
Explain the neurology of addiction
brain maintains homeostasis – increases or decreases neurotransmitters to compensate effect of addictive substance. Need increased dosage to experience same effect – unoccupied sites create craving / dependence. Brain “learns” to anticipate consumption – makes “pre-emptive” adjustment – overdose potential.
agonists
drugs that enhance or mimic the effects of a neurotransmitters action.
- direct agonists are drugs that can bind to receptor sites
- indirect agonists facilitate neurotransmitters by increasing the release and availability of neurotransmitters
antagonists
inhibit neurotransmitter activity by blocking receptors or preventing synthesis of the neurotransmitter.
nicotine
an Acetylcholine agonist – it stimulates the receptor sites for this neurotransmitter.
Xanax
a GABA agonist, meaning it causes relaxation by increasing the activity of this inhibitory neurotransmitter
cocaine and meth
stimulants that increase release of dopamine and norepinephrine and/or block reuptake of dopamine. Perceived as pleasurable and associated behaviors are reinforced
opiates
agonists that mimic endorphins by attaching to their binding sites
alcohol
generally depress neural activity throughout brain
Explain how an addict might overdose on the usual dosage.
Brain “learns” to anticipate consumption – makes “pre-emptive” adjustment – overdose potential.
Describe the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.
Sympathetic – prepares the body to react and expand energy in times of stress (active during fight or flight response) blood is directed to muscles. Heart rate and perspiration increase. Digestive processes slow. – responses that prepare the body for action
Parasympathetic – maintains body functions; conserves resources (active during rest and digestion) following sympathetic arousal, it works to return the body to a baseline, nonemergency state.
neuron
major type of cells that are responsible for sending and receiving messages throughout the body
soma (cell body)
he part of neuron that contains the nucleus that houses the cell’s genetic material.
axon
transports information in the form of electrochemical reactions from the cell body to the end of the neuron
neurotransmitter
chemicals that function as messengers allowing neurons to communicate with each other.
dendrites
small branches radiating from the cell body that receive messages from other cells and transmit those messages toward the rest of the cell.
glial cells
are specialized cells of the nervous system that are involved in mounting immune responses in the brain, removing waste, and synchronizing the activity of the billions of neurons that constitute the nervous system.
myelin sheath
a fatty sheath that insulates axons from one another, resulting in increased speed and efficiency of neural communication.
multiple sclerosis
a disease in which the immune system does not recognize myelin and attacks it.
resting potential
relatively stable sate during which the cell is not transmitting messages
action potential
a wave of electrical activity that originates at the base of the axon and rapidly travels down its length
refractory period
the brief period in which neurons can not fire
presynaptic cell
cell that releases chemicals (before the synapse)
postsynaptic
cell that receives this input (after the synapse)
all or none principle
individual nerve cells fire at the same strength every time and action potential occurs
synaptic cleft
the minute space between axon terminal and the dendrite
reuptake
a process whereby neurotransmitter molecules that have been released into synapse are reabsorbed into the axon terminals of the presynaptic neuron.
hypothalamus
a brain structure that regulates basic biological needs and motivational systems
Pituitary gland
the master gland of the endocrine system that produces hormones and sends commands about hormones production to other glands of the endocrine system.
Adrenal glands
a pair of endocrine glands located adjacent to the kidneys that release stress hormones, such as cortisol and epinephrine.
genes
the basic units of heredity; genes are responsible for guiding the process of creating the proteins that make up our physical structures and regulate development and physiological process throughout the lifespan
genotype
the genetic makeup of an organism – the unique set of genes that comprise that individuals genetic code.
phenotype
the physical traits or behavioral characteristics that show genetic variation, such as eye color, the shape and size of facial features, and even personality.
behavioral genomics
the study of DNA and the ways in which specific genes are related to behavior
behavioral genetics
is the study of how genes and the environment influence behavior
monozygotic twins
come form a single egg, which makes them genetically identical (almost 100% genetic similarity)
dizygotic twins
(fraternal twins) come from two separate eggs fertilized by two different sperm cells that share the same womb; these twins have approx. 50% of their genes in common.
heritability
a statistic expressed as a number between zero and one, that represents the degree to which genetic differences between individuals contribute to individual differences in a behavior or trait found in a population.
epigenetics
the study of changes in gene expression that occur as a result of experience and that do not alter the genetic code.
PNS (peripheral nervous system)
a division of the nervous system that transmits signals between the brain and the rest of the body and is divided into two subcomponents, the somatic system and the autonomic system.
somatic nervous system
consists of nerves that control skeletal muscles, which are responsible for voluntary and reflexive movement; it also consists of nerves that receive sensory input from the body.
autonomic nervous system
the portion of the peripheral nervous system responsible for regulating the activity of organs and glands.
sympathetic nervous system
responsible for the fight or flight response of an increased heart rate, dilated pupils, and decreased salivary flow – responses that prepare the body for action.
parasympathetic nervous system
helps maintain homeostatic balance in the presence of change; following sympathetic arousal, it works to return the body to a baseline, nonemergency state.
cerebellum
lobe like structure at the base of the brain that is involved in the monitoring of movement, maintaining balance, attention, and emotional responses.
mid brain
resides just above the hindbrain, primarily functions as a relay station between sensory and motor areas.
basal ganglia
group of three structures that are involved in facilitating planned movements, skill learning, and integrating sensory and movement information with the brains reward system.
limbic system
and integrated network in emotion and memory
amygdala
facilitates memory formation for emotional events, mediates fear responses, and appears to play a role in recognizing and interpreting emotional stimuli, including facial recognition.
hippocampus
is critical for learning and memory, particularly the formation of new memories.
thalamus
a set of nuclei involved in relaying sensory information to different regions of the brain
cerebral cortex
is the convoluted, wrinkled outer layer of the brain that is involved in multiple higher functions, such as thought, language, and personality
compare/ contrasts sensation and perception
Sensation – (the process of detecting external events by sense organs and turning those events into neural signals.) physical sensing of environment/ physiological/ relatively objective/ learning and experience NOT required
Perception – (involves attending to, organizing, and interpreting stimuli that sense) mental interpretation of environment/ psychological/ learning and experience are required.
transduction
Transduction is the process in which physical or chemical stimulation is converted into a nerve impulse that is relayed to the brain.
smelly facts
- only 3% of sensory neurons compared to 30% devoted to vision.
- only about 200 researchers worldwide
- human nose one of the least sensitive in the animal kingdom. Yet we can detect one billionth of an ounce of odor in the air. We have 350 different types of smell receptors allowing us to detect about 10,000 different smells.
- smell was our first sense/ every living organism has the ability to sense chemicals in the environment/ the nose is only place with a direct link between the environment and our brain
ESP and the types
Precognition – the accurate prediction of future events “knowing the future”
Clairvoyance – the direct mental perception of a state of physical affairs. “seeing” remote events.
Telepathy – the direct communication between one mind and another through the use of psi. “reading” messages from other minds.
- Describe the physiological, neurological and psychological changes during the onset of sleep.
Physiological: HR slows/ breathing more irregular/ muscles relax (sometimes with sudden twitch or jerk)/ sensory equipment closes down (vision first, then hearing, then others)
Neurological – electrical voltage increases with more diffuse firings throughout brain.
Psychological: awareness of environment and time slips away/ control of thought and imagery decreases. Hypnagogic hallucinations (brief weird, unusual experiences just before nodding off/ tend to be surprising, involve movement, and have red as dominant color/ most common hallucination involves falling or stepping out into space)
- Identify the stages of sleep and the changes that accompany them.
Awake
Awake and calm
Stage 1 – breathing, blood pressure, and heart rate all decrease. After 10-15 minutes, the sleeper enters the next stage
Stage 2 – brain continues to slow. The bursts of activity are not completely understood, but research suggests they may help in maintain a stage of sleep and in the process of memory storage.
Stages 3 and 4 (deep sleep) – brain continues to slow. Hard to wake someone up at this stage.
REM sleep – rapid eye movement. When most of the dreaming occurs. If you do more cognitive activity during the day, you’ll likely spend more time in REM sleep.
Describe the nature and quality of the content of most dreams.
A coherent but bizarre storyline – 50% of content easily linked to recent experiences. Can be influenced by external stimuli. Most dreams are in color. Fleeting story that requires immediate recall upon waking or it is forgotten. If frightening it is called a nightmare. Everyone dreams.
edward thorndike
measured the time it took cats to learn to escape from puzzle boxes – over repeated trials, cats were able to escape more rapidly because they learned which responses work.
john watson
conditioned an 11month old child named albert to fear white rats. While albert was in the vicinity of rats, they startled him by striking a bar with a hammer. Albert quickly associated the rat with the startling sound; the child soon showed a conditioned emotional response just to the rat. – the loud noise would be the unconditioned stimuli and fear would be the unconditioned response; over time, the white rat became the conditioned stimuli with fear being the conditioned response.
law of effect
the idea that responses followed by satisfaction will occur again and those that are not followed by satisfaction become less likely.
Variable interval schedule of reinforcement
the first response is reinforced following a variable amount of time.
Variable ratio schedule of reinforcement
the number of responses required to receive reinforcement varies according to an average.
Ivan Pavlov
dogs salivate in anticipation of food (psychological secretions). Presented a sound of a metronome at intervals paired with meat powder. After pairing, the metronome could elicit salivation.
Classical conditioning
learning that occurs when neutral stimulus elicits a response that was originally caused by another stimulus.
Unconditioned stimulus
a stimulus that elicits a reflexive response without learning.
Unconditioned response – a reflexive, unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus.
Conditioned stimulus
a once neutral stimulus that later elicits a conditioned response because it has a history of being paired with an unconditioned stimulus
Conditioned response
is the learned response that occurs to the unconditioned stimulus
acquistion
is the initial phase of learning in which a response is established.
extinction
the loss of weakening of a conditioned response when a conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus no longer occur together. (if a tone is presented repeatedly and no food follows, then salivation should occur less and less, until eventually it may not occur at all.)
Spontaneous recovery
the reoccurrence of a previously extinguished conditioned response, typically after some time has passed since extinction.
Stimulus generalization
s a process in which a response that originally occurs to a specific stimulus also occurs to different, thought similar stimuli. (dogs salivated not just to the original tone (CS), but also to very similar tones.
Discrimination
which occurs when an organism learns to respond to one original stimulus but not to new stimuli that may be similar to the original stimulus.
Preparedness
the biological predisposition to rapidly learn a response to a particular class of stimuli.
Conditioned taste eversion
acquired dislike or disgust of a food or drink because it was paired with illness.
Operant conditioning
a type of learning which behavior is influenced by consequences.
Reinforcement
a process in which an event or reward that follows a response increases the likelihood of that response occurring again.
Reinforce
a stimulus that is contingent upon a response, and that increases the probability of that response occurring again (a reinforce would be something like food whereas reinforcement would be the changes in the frequency of behavior like lever pressing that occur as a result of the food reward
Positive reinforcement
the strengthening of behavior after potential reinforces such as praise, money, or nourishment follow that behavior.
Negative reinforcement
involves the strengthening of a behavior because it removes or diminishes a stimulus.
Avoidance learning
a specific type of negative reinforcement that removes the possibility that a stimulus will occur.
Escape learning
occurs if a response removes a stimulus that is already present.
Positive punishment
a process in which a behavior decreases in frequency because it was followed by a particular, unusually unpleasant, stimulus.
Negative punishment
occurs when a behavior decreases because it removes or diminishes a particular stimulus.
Primary reinforcers
consists of reinforcing stimuli that satisfy basic motivational needs-needs that affect an individual’s ability to survive
Secondary reinforcers
consist of stimuli that acquire their reinforcing effects only after we learn that they have value.
Shaping
a procedure in which a specific operant response is created by reinforcing successive approximations of that response
Galton
the person
eugenics
binet
the enviroment
“the tendency to take and maintain a definite direction; the capacity to make adaptations for the purpose of attaining a desired end; and the power of auto criticism”
- Flexible and pragmatic definition
- Not fixed but grows naturally with experience.
- Loose collection of various capabilities
- Tied together by good judgment or “good sense”
- Describe Spearman’s Two-Factor Theory of intelligence.
General intelligence: an overall mental ability common to all intellectual tasks – biological, inherited. – Galton
“S” factors – “specific intelligences”: mental abilities applicable to unique intellectual tasks – environmental, learned – Binet
- Describe Stern’s mathematical formula for the intelligence quotient.
I.Q. = mental age/chronological age X 100
- Contrast Terman’s abuse of IQ testing with the uses proposed by Binet.
“High grade or border line deficiency is very common among Spanish Indian and Mexican families of the southwest and also among negroes. Their dullness seems to be racial, or at least inherent in the family stocks from which they come… children of this group should be segregated into separate classes… they cannot master abstractions but they can often be made into efficient workers… from a eugenic point of view they constitute a grave problem because of their unusually prolific breeding”
- Describe Wechsler’s theory of intelligence and contrast it with Terman’s ideas about intelligence.
- The capacity of an individual to understand the world around him and his resourcefulness to cope with its challenges.
- Awareness: understanding and knowing what you are doing and why
- Meaningful: goal directed, intentional behavior that is understood to have significance and relevance
- Rational: logically deduced and consistent
- Worthwhile: consensus deems the behavior to be valued and useful; in accord with acceptable norms of merit and importance.
- Intelligent behavior is defined by its context
