Psychology Exam 3 Lecture Outcomes Flashcards

Question

Be able to apply discrete emotions theory to interpret emotions (e.g., disgust), including cross-species comparisons.

Answer 1

Discrete Emotion Theory: The idea that we have a few separate emotions, and that all of them serve an adaptive function. Example: Feel first, think later.

Answer 2

People across cultures can not only easily recognize basic emotions but also use the same muscle groups to express their feelings. Most people across the world are able to infer emotions from vocal cues.

Answer 3

Facial Feedback Effect: Facial expressions can trigger emotional feelings and signal our body to respond accordingly. Example: Smiling should typically make individuals feel happier, and frowning should make them feel sadder. Behavior Feedback Effect: The tendency of behavior to influence our own and other's thoughts, feelings, and actions. Example: One could imitate those happy people because it would feed into your nervous system and help you feel better.

Answer 4

Two-Factor Theory: The Schacter-Singer theory that to experience emotion one must (1) be physically aroused (2) cognitively label the arousal. Example: When an employee is unhappy with their job, they may exhibit low performance or consider quitting the company.

Answer 5

High road (Indirect pathway to the amygdala): The thalamic info is transmitted to the sensory cortex where it is further processed and evaluated for level of threat prior to being sent to the amygdala. Feelings: Complex feelings (Love, Hatred) Low Road (More reflexive) - Direct connection from the eye or ear to the amygdala Feelings: Elicit defensive responses without conscious thought.

Answer 6

Adapation-Level Phenomenon: Our tendency to form judg- ments (of sounds, of lights, of income) relative to a neutral level defined by our prior experience. After a surge of pleasure, improvements become our new normal, and we then require something even better to give us a boost of happiness. Relative Deprivation: The perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself. Just as comparing ourselves with those who are better off creates envy, so counting our blessing as we compare ourselves with those worse off boots our contentment. Example: When depressed people read about someone who was more depressed, they felt somewhat better.

Answer 7

1.) Genes: 36% of differences among people's happiness ratings were heritable. 2.) Basic Needs Met = Happiness. 3.) Days of week: Weekend. 4.) Doing good: Kindness. 5.) Esteem: High Self-Esteem. 6.) Attitude: Optimistic, Outgoing, Agreeable. 8.) Relationships: Health relationships. 9.) Religion: Faith. 10.) Self-Care: Sleep. Exercise.

Answer 8

The process the body goes through positive or negative stress: Alarm: If the body is unable to return to its pre-stress state, then the body remains on high alert, eventually adapting to a higher stress level. Resistance: The stage that occurs during prolonged or chronic stress when the body's adaptation to higher stress levels starts to break down. The body no longer has the strength or resources to fight the stress. Exhaustion: If prolonged or chronic stress is experienced then the body may not be able to repair itself in a timely manner, which can lead to the exhaustion phase.

Answer 9

Psychodynamic Theory: Freud's theory that unconscious forces act as determinants of personality. Humanistic Theory: Assumes that people are basically good and want to become their best selves. Trait Theory: a model of personality that seeks to identify the basic traits necessary to describe personality. Behavioral Theory: Suggest that personality is a result of interaction between the individual and the environment. Social-Cognitive Theory: Describes the influence of individual experiences, the actions of others, and environmental factors on individual health behaviors.

Answer 10

Nomothetic Approach: Focused on establishing general laws by studying large groups of people Idiographic Approach: Focusing on the individual and emphasizing the unique personal experience of a human experience/nature

Answer 11

1.) Psychic Determinism: Every thought is an effect of some cause. 2.) Symbolism: Every effect tells you something about the underlying meaning. 3.) Role of Subconscious: Causes come from below the level of awareness.

Answer 12

Three Agencies of the Human Psyche : Id: Basic instincts Ego: The psyche's decision maker. Superego: Our sense of morality.

Answer 13

Defense Mechanisms: Unconscious maneu- vers intended to minimize anxiety. Regression: The act of returning psychology- ically to a younger, and typically simpler and safer age. Repression: Motivated forgetting of emotionally threatening memories or impulses. Denial: Motivated forgetting of distressing external experiences. Reaction-Formation: Transformation of an anxiety-provoking emotion into its opposite. Projection: Unconscious attributing of our negative characteristics to others. Displacement: Directing an impulse from a socially unacceptable target onto a safer and more socially acceptable one. f Sublimation: Transforming a socially unacceptable impulse into an admired goal.

Answer 14

Critics of the psychoanalytic approach, especially Freud's theories, argue that the approach is difficult to test, overemphasizes biology and unconscious forces, has inadequate empirical support, is sexist, and lacks cross-cultural support.

Answer 15

1. Genuineness 2. Acceptance 3. Empathy

Answer 16

1.) Conscientiousness 2.) Greeableness 3.) Neuroticism 4.) Openness 5.) Extraversion

Answer 17

Projective Tests: A person- ality test, such as the Rorschach, that provides ambiguous images designed to trigger projection of one's inner dynamics. Strengths: Allow people to express their thoughts and ideas without the fear of judgment or social constraints. Weaknesses: Projective tests that do not have standard grading scales tend to lack both validity and reliability. Validity refers to whether or not a test is measuring what it purports to measure, while reliability refers to the consistency of the test results Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): A projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes. Strengths: The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) is useful in revealing a patient's dominant motivations, emotions, and core personality conflicts. Weaknesses: The TAT is often criticized for not being standardized, meaning there are no rules of administration or formal scoring system. Clinicians often vary in how they administer the test Rorschach Inkblot Test: The most widely used projective test; a set of 10 inkblots, designed by Hermann Rorschach; seeks to identify people's inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots. Strengths: A major strength of this tool lies in its ability to see beyond the things that a person is willing or able to reveal. Weaknesses: Another key criticism of the Rorschach is that it lacks reliability. 4 Reliability means you get the same results no matter who is scoring the test. Scoring relies heavily on examiner interpretation. Because of this, two examiners can arrive at two very different conclusions when looking at the same person's responses.

Answer 18

Locus of Control: how much individuals perceive that they themselves have control over their own actions as opposed to events in life occurring instead because of external forces. Example: Shuttle Box used in Learned Helplessness Experiments One group (Not controlling their environment): Put in harness. Same amount of shock. Nothing that will do will prevent the shock to the dog. Second group (Controlling Environment): Put in harness. A dog gets a shock but it can control it. The dog could jump to the other side of the box to be able to avoid the shock. Third group (Control Group): Put in harness. Don't get a shock. Controlling your environment increases your locus of control.

Answer 19

Fundamental Attribution Error: Tendency to underestimate situational influences and overestimate dispositional influences on oth- ers' behaviors. Example: We might infer people fall because they're clumsy (dispositional) rather than tripped (situational). Ultimate Attribution Error: The tendency for persons from one group (the ingroup) to determine that any bad acts by members of an outgroup Example: People who hold just-world beliefs are more likely than others to blame poor people for being impoverished and, to some extent, are more likely to blame women for being battered or raped

Answer 20

Attitudes: The feeling often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose our reactions to objects, people, and events. 1.) They come to mind easily: If your attitudes are something that are natural, then subconsciously, then you are going to respond without thinking about it. When your attitudes are not natural, then you have to think about what your response is going to be. 2.) The person is a low self monitor: People are less likely to change their behavior to fit in. 3.) The person is a high self monitor: People think about their response, and change their behavior to fit in.

Answer 21

Central Route: The use of logic & facts to persuade you to engage in the behavior. Peripheral Route: Evoke emotional response to persuade you to engage in the behavior.

Answer 22

Phantom Goal: To capitalize on desires that are unrealistic to accomplish. Scarcity heuristic: The idea that something that's rare must be especially valuable. Source Credibility: The degree to which people believe and trust what other people and organizations tell them about a particular product or service: Vivid Testimonials: If you describe memories and descriptions as vivid, you mean that they are very clear and detailed. Natural Commonplace: A widely held belief that things that are natural are good.

Answer 23

Results: Asch measured the number of times each participant conformed to the majority view. On average, about one-third (32%) of the participants who were placed in this situation went along and conformed with the clearly incorrect majority on the critical trials. Over the 12 critical trials, about 75% of participants conformed at least once, and 25% of participants never conformed. In the control group, with no pressure to conform to confederates, less than 1% of participants gave the wrong answer. Factors Affecting Conformity: 1.) Group Size 2.) Lack of Group Unanimity/Presence of an Aly 3.) Difficulty of Task 4.) Answer in Private

Answer 24

Procedure: Zimbardo and his colleagues (1973) were interested in finding out whether the brutality reported among guards in American prisons was due to the sadistic personalities of the guards (i.e., dispositional) or had more to do with the prison environment (i.e., situational). Results: According to Zimbardo and his colleagues, the Stanford Prison Experiment revealed how people will readily conform to the social roles they are expected to play, especially if the roles are as strongly stereotyped as those of the prison guards. Because the guards were placed in a position of authority, they began to act in ways they would not usually behave in their normal lives.

Answer 25

Milgram Teacher - Learner Paradigm Procedure: Each participant took the role of a "teacher" who would then deliver a shock to the "student" in a neighboring room whenever an incorrect answer was given. While participants believed that they were delivering real shocks to the student, the "student" was a confederate in the experiment who was only pretending to be shocked. Results: Milgram's results showed that 65% of the participants in the study delivered the maximum shocks. Of the 40 participants in the study, 26 delivered the maximum shocks, while 14 stopped before reaching the highest levels. Implications: The obedience to authority figures stems from the construction of a situation or context of authority, within which various conditions such as authority/subject proximity, authority legitimacy, and attribution of responsibility, are important determinants of the subject's obedience.

Answer 26

Group Polarization: The enhancement of a group's prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group. 1.) The beliefs and attitudes we bring to a group grow stronger as we discuss them with like-minded others. Like minds polarize. 2.) The internet offers us a connected global world, but also a medium for group polarization to occur. Example: Progressive friend progressives and share links that affirm their shared views. Conservatives connect with conservatives and likewise share conservative perspectives.

Answer 27

Word, Zanna, Cooper: Black and white applicants were interviewed by white interviewers, researchers wanted to see if the white interviewers perceived and treated applicants diff depending on their race, they found evidence of discrimination, they had chairs with wheels where they measured where their chair was, results- Interviewers sat farther, stammered more, and ended the interview sooner when the applicant was black, IV- whether the applicant was black or white, DV- how the white interviewers acted. Elliott's Brown Eyes, Blue Eyes In the video, the teacher was saying that blue-eyed people are smarter than brown-eyed people. The teacher is using the (confirmation bias): she is find- ing evidence to support her hypothesis [blue-eyed dads do not hit their chil- dren/brown-eyed dads do hit their children]. Goldin & Rouse, 2000: Traditionally women tend to have difficulty being hired for orchestras. But Goldin and Rouse (2000) conducted a study on sexism in orchestras in which musicians auditioned behind screens and found that when all performers auditioned behind screens so that they couldn't be seen, more women were hired for the orchestra. Duncan, 1976: In a classic study, Duncan (1976) had participants watch a videotape of a discus- sion between two men. At one point in the tape, one of the men shoved the other's shoulder. What were the findings of this study? All participants viewed the shove as being hostile when it was committed by a black versus a white actor.

Answer 28

Prejudice: An unjustifiable and usually negative attitude to- ward a group and its members. Prejudice generally involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition to discriminatory action. Just-Worth Theory: The tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve what they get. Scapegoat Theory: The theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame. Conformity: To social norms and rejection of out-group Individual Differences: Authoritatian traits, extrinisc religiosity. Remedies to Promote Equality: Robbers Cave Study: Method: The use of "11 an 12-year-old boys" in an artificial summer camp. Two different groups. Stage one: 1st-week boys were separated, did not know of existence of other group, focused on group bonding Stage Two: Introduction of groups to each other. Created competition for resources. Competition created tension b/w the two groups. Stage Three: Both groups had to work together in fake situations in order to solve the problem. The boys liked each other much more because of team-building activities. Start: Ingroup bias. End: Team-Building resulted in strengthening of realtionships for the boys. Jigsaw Classrooms: A jigsaw activity is a technique where students work in groups to teach each other something. Example: If students in a jigsaw classroom were working on a project about the life cycle of a plant, a classroom of 25 children might be organized into five diverse groups of five children each. Within each group, a different child would be given the responsibility of researching and learning about a different specific topic. Together they are dependent of each other and each student takes turns teaching what they have learned to their group members. The jigsaw process encourages listening, engagement, and empathy by giving each member of the group an essential part to play in the academic activity. Robbers Cave Study and Jigsaw Classrooms 1.) Cooperation toward a shared enjoyable goal: 2.) Groups of equal status: Members of the contact situation should not have an unequal, hierarchical relationship 3.) Disconfirm negative stereotypes: Show that a belief or hypothesis is not or may not be true.

Answer 29

1.) Statistical Variety 2.) Impairment Stress 3.) Subjective Distress

Answer 30

Biological, psychological, and social-cultural influences combine to produce psychological disorders. This broad perspective helps us understand that our well-being is affected by our genes, brain functioning, inner thoughts and feelings, and the influences of our social and cultural environment.

Answer 31

DSM-V: The American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition; a widely used system for classifying psychological disorders. Criticisms: 1.) Critics have faulted the DSM for bringing almost any kind of behavior within the compass of psychiatry. 2.) Critics register a basic complaint that diagnostic labels can be subjectvie, or even value judgments masquearading as a science. Advantages: 1.) The labels help mental health professionals to communicate about their cases and to study the causes nad treatments of disorders. L 2.) The classfication of disorders aims to predict a disorder's future course, suggest appropriate treatmetn, and prompt reserach into its causes.

Answer 32

1.) Academic failure 2.) Birth complications 3.) Child abuse 4.) Neglect 5.) Chronic pain 6.) Medical Illness 7.) Reading Disabilities 8.) Stressful life events

Answer 33

Generalized Anxiety Disorder: An anxiety disorder in which a person is continually tense, apprehensive, and in a state of autonomic nervous system arousal. Panic Disorder: An anxiety disorder marked by unpredictable, minutes-long episodes of intense dread in which a person may experience terror and accompanying chest pain, choking, or other frightening sensations, often followed by worry over a possible next attack.

Answer 34

A disorder characterized by unwanted repetitive thoughts (obsessions), actions (compulsions), or both.

Answer 35

Core of Learning Behavior: Conditoning US: Threat CS: Noise, Visual, Stimulus, Feeling Cognitive: Interpartaion around you. Biological Component: Heredity.

Answer 36

Sadness, joylessness, anxiety, tension, lack of energy, loss of interest, loss of ability to concentrate, and ideas of insufficiency

Answer 37

1.) Find relief from intense negative thoughts through the distraction of pain. 2.) Attract attention and possibly get help. 3.) Relieve guilt by punishing themselves. 4.) Get others to change their negative behavior (bullying, criticism). 5.) Fit in with a peer group.

Answer 38

Schizophrenia: A disorder characterized by delusions, hallucinations, disor- ganized speech, and/or diminished, inappropriate emotional expression. Chronic Schizophrenia: A form of schizophrenia in which symptoms usually appear by late adolescent or early adulthood. As people age, psychotic episodes last longer, and recovery periods shorten. Acute Schizophrenia: A form of schizophrenia that can begin at any age, frequently occurs in response to an emotionally traumatic event, and has extended recovery periods.

Answer 39

Cluster A – odd, eccentric (emotionless disengagement) Examples: 1.) Paranoid PD: Distrust and suspiciousness of others. 2.) Schizoid PD: Detachment from social relationships. Cluster B – dramatic, emotional, or impulsive behaviors (attention-getting) Examples: 1.) Antisocial PD (Psychopathy/Sociopathy): Disregard for the rights of others. 2.) Borderline PD: Extreme instability in mood, identity, interpersonal relationships, and impulse control. 3.) Narcissistic PD: Gradniosity, need for admiration, lack of empathy. Cluster C – anxious or fearful (fearful sensitivity to rejection) Examples: 1.) Dependent PD: Submissive and clinging behavior. 2.) Obsessive-Compulsive PD: Preoccupation with orderliness, perfectionism, and control

Answer 40

Family Resemblance View: The notion that members of a category resemble one another. Two people presenting with a disorder may look similar in some ways and different in others.

Answer 41

1.) Free Association: Patients express themselves without censorship. 2.) Interpretation: Therapists formulate explanations from the free association. 3.) Dream Analysis: Dreams express unconscious feelings, and the therapist can interpret these. 4.)Resistance: Attempts to avoid confrontation and anxiety associated with uncovering previously repressed thoughts, emotions, and impulses. 5.) Transference: Projecting intense, unrealistic feelings and expectations from the past onto the therapist. 6.) Working Through: Confronting and resolving problems, conflicts, and ineffective coping responses in everyday life.

Answer 42

Psycho-analysis Theory: Our childhood experiences and unconscious desires influence behavior. Goal: Cultivate insight and expand awareness. Humanistic Theory: A perspective that emphasizes looking at the whole person and the uniqueness of each individual. Existential Theory: Humans have free choice, and because of that free choice, we can create purpose and meaning in our lives. Goal: Life is hard, let's talk about it. Behavioral Theory: All behaviors are learned through interaction with the environment. Goal: Identify and assess the problem. Design and implement a strategy for change. Focuses on specific problem behaviors and current variables that maintain them. Cognitive Theory: A learning theory that attempts to explain human behavior by understanding thought processes. Goal: To replace maladaptive or irrational cognitions with more adaptive, rational ones. Cognitive-Behavioral Theory: Cognitive therapy is based on the theory that individuals with depression, anxiety, and other emotional disorders have maladaptive patterns of information processing and behavioral-related difficulties. Technique: Change thoughts and behavior. Family Therapy Theory: Draws on systems thinking in its view of the family as an emotional unit. Technique: Attempts to open up communication within the family and help family members to discover and use conflict resolution strategies.

Answer 43

1.) Behavior Therapy 2.) Cognitive Therapy 3.) Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT) 4.) Group Therapies

Answer 44

1.) Identify and assess the problem. 2.) Design and implement a strategy for change. 3.) Focuses on specific problem behaviors and current variables that maintain them. Further Explanation: Reward and punishment shape behavior. Token Economy: Desirable behaviors are rewarded with tokens & which patients can exchange for rewards. Aversion Therapy: Uses punishment to decrease the frequency of undesirable behaviors.

Answer 45

1.) Cognitions can be identified and measured. 2.) Cognitions are the key player in both healthy and unhealthy psychological functioning. 3.) Irrational beliefs can be replaced by more rational and adaptive cognitions.

Answer 46

Replace maladaptive or irrational cognitions with more adaptive, rational ones.

Answer 47

1.) Attempts to open up communication within the family and help family members to discover and use conflict resolution strategies. 2.) Treats the family as a system. 3.) Views an individual's unwanted behaviors as influenced by, or directed at, other family members.

Answer 48

The graph in the "clinical therapy lecture" shows data from 475 studies show the improvement of untreated people and psychotherapy clients. The outcome for the average therapy client surpassed the outcome for 80 percent of the untreated people.

Answer 49

Clinical Psychologist: Most are psychologists with a Ph.D. (includes research training) or Psy.D. (focuses on therapy) supplemented by a supervised internship and, often, post-doctoral training. About half work in agencies and institutions, and half in private practice. Psychiatrists: physicians who specialize in the treatment of psychological disorders. Not all have had extensive training in psychotherapy, but as M.D.s or D.O.s they can prescribe medications. Thus, they tend to see those with the most serious problems. Many have their own private practice. Clinical or Psychiatric Social Workers: A two-year master of social work graduate program plus postgraduate supervision prepares some social workers to offer psychotherapy, mostly to people with everyday personal and family problems. About half have earned the National Association of Social Workers' designation of a clinical social worker. Counselors: Marriage and family therapists that specialize in problems arising from family relations. Clergy provides counseling to countless people. Abuse therapists work with substance abusers and with spouse and child abusers and their victims. Mental health and other therapists may be required to have a two-year master's degree.