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Introduction to Psychology: Exam 2 > Psychology Exam 1: Study Deck > Flashcards

Psychology Exam 1: Study Deck Flashcards

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1
Q

Pyschology

A

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

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2
Q

Biopsychoscocial Approach

A

An integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis.

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3
Q

Structuralism

A

An early school of thought promoted by Wundt and Titchener; used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind.

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4
Q

Introspection

A

Examination of one’s own thoughts and feelings.

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5
Q

Functionalism

A

A school of psychology that focused on how mental and behavioral processes function - how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish.

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6
Q

Behaviorism

A

The science of behavior that focuses on observable behavior only.

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7
Q

Psychoanalysis

A

Focuses on internal processes such as impulses, thoughts, and memories which we are unaware to treat psychological disorders.

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8
Q

Cognitivism

A

To examine the role of mental processes on behavior.

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9
Q

Clinicial Psychologist

A

A branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders.

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10
Q

Counseling Psychologist

A

A branch of psychology that works with individuals experiencing temporary or self- contained problems.

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11
Q

School Psychologist

A

A branch of psychology that focuses on counseling children in elementary and secondary schools who have academic or emotional problems.

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12
Q

Developmental Psychologist

A

A branch of psychology that focuses on why and how people change over time.

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13
Q

Experimental Psychologist

A

A branch of psychology that focuses on using research methods to study memory, language, and thinking of humans.

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14
Q

Biopsychologists Pyschologist

A

A branch of psychology that examines the physiological basis of behavior in animals and humans.

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15
Q

Forensic Pyschologist

A

A branch of psychology that assesses, diagnoses, and assists with rehabilitation and treatment of prison inmates.

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16
Q

Industrial-Organizational Pyschologist

A

A branch of psychology that focuses on working with businesses to assist in employee selection and evaluation, examining the effects of working conditions on employee behavior, designing equipment to maximize performance and minimize accidents.

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17
Q

Naive Realism

A

The belief that people everywhere see the world in the same way.

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18
Q

Confirmation Bias

A

We tend to seek evidence that confirms our beliefs.

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19
Q

Hindsight Bias

A

We tend to believe, after learning an outcome, that we would have foreseen it; the “I-knew-it-all-along” phenomenon.

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20
Q

Overconfidence

A

The tendency to overestimate our ability to make correct predictions.

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21
Q

Belief Perseverance

A

Tendency to stick to our initial beliefs even when evidence contradicts them.

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22
Q

Perceiving Order in Random Events

A

The tendency to perceive patterns where none exist.

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23
Q

Miscalibration Effect

A

The tendency for people to overestimate the precision of their knowledge.

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24
Q

Better than Average Effect

A

Most people describe themselves as above average in nearly every way.

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25
Q

Illusion of Control

A

People’s belief that they can influence events, even when they have no control over what will happen.

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26
Q

Scientific Attitude

A

Curiosity, skepticism, and humility.

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27
Q

Scientific Approach Requires

A

Communalism: Willingness to share finding and be open to hearing others ideas and beliefs.

Disinterestedness: (not interested in the outcome of the result).

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28
Q

Descriptive (Naturalistic)

A

External Validity: The extent to which we can generalize our findings to the real world

Internal Validity: The extent to which we can draw cause-and-effect inferences.

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29
Q

Correlational Designs + Example

A

Assess a relationship between variables without the researcher controlling or manipulating them.

Example: If there are multiple pizza trucks in the area and each has a different jingle, we would memorize it all and relate the jingle to its pizza truck. This particular example shows a relationship between two variables (jingle) and (distance of the truck).

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30
Q

Illusory Correlation

A

Perception of a statistical association where none exists.

Example: A soccer player may put tape around his socks before a game. They score a goal and attribute it to the fact that they are wearing tape. The connection between the two variables is an illusion.

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31
Q

Correlational-Causation Fallacy

A

Observed correlation between two variables can be explained by the third variable not accounted for.

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32
Q

Experimental Designs

A

Uncover cause-effect relationships.

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33
Q

Scatter Plot

A

Slope: Direction of relationship
Amount of Scatter: Strength of correlation

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34
Q

Correlation Coefficient

A

A statistical measure of the extent to which two factors vary together.

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35
Q

Independent Variable

A

Variable that is manipulated

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36
Q

Dependent Variable

A

The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

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37
Q

Three Experimental Concerns

A

Confounds: Any difference between the experimental and control groups not manipulated in the independent variable, but may account for the observed changes in the dependent variable.

Placebo Effect: Improvement resulting from the expectation of improvement.

Nocebo Effect: Harm from the expectation of harm.

38
Q

Evaluating Measures

A

Reliability- consistency of measurement

Validity - Extent to which a measure assesses what it claim to measure

39
Q

Mainstream Psychology

A

An approach to science of mind accepted by the majority of psychologist and is often considered to be factual and objective.

40
Q

Cross-Cultural Psychology

A

Branch of psychology that studies the effects of culture on behavior and mental processes.

41
Q

Culture

A

The product of the interaction between biological needs, universal social problems created to address those needs, and the context in which people live.

42
Q

Challenges in cross-cultural research

A

Equivalence
Linguistics Equivalence: The quality of two sets of words spoken or written in different languages but which have the same meaning.
Measurement Equivalence: A statistical property of measurement that indicates that the same construct is being measured across some specified groups.

Response Bias
Socially Desirable Responding: The tendency of respondents to reply in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others.
Acquiescence Bias: The tendency for survey respondents to agree with research statements, without the action being a true reflection of their own position or the question itself.

43
Q

Descriptive Statistics

A

Numerical summary of data.

Dispersion
Range: Difference between the highest and lowest scores
Standard Deviation: Based no how far each data point is from the mean

44
Q

Inferential Statistics

A

Mathematical methods that allow us to determine whether we can generalize findings from our sample to the full population.

Statistical Significance: How likely are results like mine to occur by chance?

Significant Result: Results the real world rather than chance

Not significant: Results reflect chance

Practical Significance: The extent to which a study result has meaningful applications in real-world settings.

45
Q

Confounding Variables

A

A factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study’s results.

46
Q

Learning

A

The process of acquiring through experience new and relatively enduring information or behaviors.

47
Q

Stimulus

A

An event or stimulus that evokes a response.

48
Q

Habituation

A

A decrease in behavior after repeated exposure.

49
Q

Sensitization

A

An increase in behavior after repeated exposure.

50
Q

Associative Learning

A

The process through which organisms acquire information about relationships between events or entities in their environment.

Application: If someone puts their hand on a hot stove and hurts themselves, they may learn to associate hot stoves with pain, and have therefore been conditioned to not put their hand on a hot stove and hurt themselves.

51
Q

Classical Conditioning

A

Definition: Learning through association

Application: [Child @ doctor’s office]

Before Conditioning: Unconditioned Stimulus [shots] produces Unconditioned Response

[cries]

Before Conditioning: Neutral Stimulus [healthcare worker] does not produce a response.

During Conditioning: Neutral Stimulus [healthcare worker] + Unconditioned Stimulus [shots] produces Unconditioned Response [crying]

After Conditioning: Conditioned Stimulus [healthcare worker] Produces Conditioned Response [crying]

52
Q

Conditioned Emotional Response

A

The emotional response that has become classically conditioned to a learned stimulus.

Application: [Child @ doctor’s office]

Before Conditioning: Unconditioned Stimulus [shots] produces Unconditioned Response

[cries]

Before Conditioning: Neutral Stimulus [healthcare worker] does not produce a response.

During Conditioning: Neutral Stimulus [healthcare worker] + Unconditioned Stimulus [shots] produces Unconditioned Response [crying]

After Conditioning: Conditioned Stimulus [healthcare worker] Produces Conditioned Response [crying]

53
Q

Generalization Stimulus

A

Definition: An organism responds to a stimulus in the same way that it responds to a similar stimulus.

54
Q

Discrimination

A

Definition: Ability to perceive and respond to differences among stimuli.

Application: [wine tasting]. You perceive differences in the wine and respond to the differences by purchasing one wine over the other.

55
Q

Conditioned Taste Aversion

A

Nausea or aversive response to a particular taste because that taste was followed by a nausea reaction.

56
Q

Acquisition

A

The learning phase during which a CR is established.

57
Q

Extinction

A

Definition: Gradual decrease and elimination of the CR when the CS is presented repeatedly without the US.

Application: In the (pavlov dog experiment). The dog is conditioned to associate the bell with food coming. When the (neutral stimulus: Bell) is presented without the (UCS: Food), the dog will stop associating the bell with (food coming), and this will eliminate both the conditioned stimulus and response.

58
Q

Spontaneous Recovery

A

Sudden reemergence of the CR after the passage of time.

59
Q

Operant Conditioning

A

A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

60
Q

Operant Conditioning Chamber (Skinner)

A

A Skinner Box contains a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking.

61
Q

Continuous Reinforcement Schedule

A

Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.

62
Q

Partial Reinforcement

A

Term: Reinforcing a response only part of the time.

Example: Pigeon learned to peck a key to obtain food. Phase out food delivery until it occurs rarely, then the pigeon may peck 150,000 times without a reward.

Administration by:
Ratio Schedule: Number of responses
Interval Schedule: Amount of time

**Slower learning but resistant to extinction.

63
Q

Fixed Interval

A

Definition: Reinforce the first response after a fixed time period. Animals on this type of schedule tend to respond more frequently as the anticipated time for reward draws near.

Application: People check more frequently for the mail as the delivery time approaches.

64
Q

Variable Interval

A

Definition: Reinforce the first response after varying time intervals.

Application: At unpredictable times, a food pellet rewarded Skinner’s pigeons for persistence in pecking a key.

65
Q

Reinforcement after a fixed quantity of responses regardless of time.

A

Definition: Fixed Ratio Schedule

Application: A person works a summer job and they get paid for every 100 envelopes you stuffed.

Post Reinforcement Pause (Associated): Produce high rates of responding and that decline immediately after the reinforcer is received.

66
Q

Variable Ratio Schedule

A

Definition: Reinforcement at the unpredictable quantity of responses regardless of time.

Application: The one-armed bandit which is a slot machine. You must pull the arm an unspecified number of times before you are reinforced with a jackpot. Sometimes you can put in a few quarters, pull the arm once, and win a big jackpot. Sometimes you pull and pull but you just never win.

Variable-ratio schedules: produce high rates of responding because reinforcers increase as the number of responses increases.

67
Q

Thorndike’s Law of Effect

A

Responses that lead to satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated

Application: If you started to follow a new meal plan, and as a result, you started to feel more energized and creative. You are more likely to stick with this meal plan for a while. If the meal plan did not help you make improvements in your life, then you are likely to stop the plan.

68
Q

Higher Order Conditioning

A

A procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.)

69
Q

Reinforcer

A

Definition: Encourage behavior

Application:

Positive: (+) Pleasant Stimulus
Example: Give a child a treat when he or she is polite to a stranger.
Negative: (-) Unpleasant Stimulus
Example: Studying for an exam to avoid getting poor grades.

70
Q

Punisher

A

Definition: Weakens a response

Application:

Positive: + Stimulus
Example: Spank child for bad behavior
Negative: - Stimulus
Example: Taking away drivers license

71
Q

Oldest parts of the brain

A

Brainstem
Thalamus
Reticular Formation
Cerebellum

72
Q

Newer parts of the brain

A

Amygdala
Hypothalamus
Hippocampus

73
Q

Medulla (Function/Location)

A

Function:
The base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing.

Location:
Base of brainstem.

74
Q

Cerebellum (Function/Location)

A

Function: Processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory.

Location: (look at the picture)

75
Q

Reticular Activating System (Function)

A

Function:

A nerve network that travels through the brainstem into the thalamus and plays an important role in controlling arousal.

Location: (look at the picture)

76
Q

Substantia Nigra (Function)

A

Function: The function is a dopamine factory center. Plays role in reward, movement, addiction, and eye movement.

Location: (Look at the picture)

77
Q

Basal Forebrain (Function)

A

Function: The function is motor control, learning, and action selection.

78
Q

Hippocampus (Function)

A

Function: The function is memory spatial memory (navigation).

79
Q

Amygdala (Function)

A

Function: The function is linked to emotions of fear and anger.

80
Q

Hypothalamus (Function)

A

Function: The function is to direct maintenance activities: eating, drinking, body temp, and control of emotions.

81
Q

Neocortex (Four lobes of the neocortex)

A

Frontal Lobe:
Speaking, muscle movements, making plans, and judgments.

Parietal Lobe:
Processes somatosensory information from body.

Temporal Lobe:
Perception of auditory stimuli,

Occipital Lobe:
Center of visual perception

82
Q

Broca’s Area (Function)

A

Function: Motor Speech Area

Location: The dominant hemisphere of the frontal lobes, is in the left hemisphere.

83
Q

Wernicke’s area (Function)

A

Function: Perception and language processing.

Location: In the left cerebral hemisphere, near the back of the temporal lobe.

84
Q

Primary Sensory Cortex and Primary Motor Cortex (Function)

A

Function: Primary Sensory Cortex (Function): Discriminates among different intensities and qualities of sensory information

Function: Primary Motor Cortex (Function): To generate signals to direct the movement of the body.

85
Q

Describe brain plasticity (4 different ways)

A

Before birth and until maturation is complete:
Brain changes in response to experience.

During learning (long-term potentiation):
Pathway activated there are changes within the cell to make it so that the first neuron can cause a change in the second neuron more easily.

Stem Cells

Neurogenesis: Most of the neurons we are born with:
Sleeping: Allows for the growth of new neurons
Exercise: Causes inflammation and allows for the growth of new neurons.

86
Q

Be able to describe the function of dopamine, actylcholine, serotonin, GABA, Glutamate, and endorphins.

A

Dopamine: Influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion

Acetylcholine: Enables muscle action, learning and memory.

Serotonin: Affects mood, hunger, sleep and arousal.

GABA: A major inhibitory neurotransmitter.

Glutamte: A major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory.

Endorphins: Neurotransmitter that influence the perception of pain or pleasure

87
Q

Be able to describe the process of interneuron communication.

A

A neuron that conveys impulses from one neuron to another.

When an action potential reaches knob-like terminals at an axon’s end, it triggers the release of (neurotransmitters).

Neurotransmitter molecules cross the synaptic gap and bind to receptor sites on receiving neuron either exciting or inhibiting the receiving neuron’s readiness to fire.

88
Q

Be able to identify and locate the main parts of a neuron.

A

Dendrites: Receive Messages from other cells
Cell Body: The cell’s life support center
Axon: Passes messages away from cell body to other neurons.
Mylene Sheath: Covers axon of some neurons & speeds up neural impulses
Terminal Branches: Branches form junctions with other cells.

89
Q

Apoptosis

A

Programmed cell death

90
Q

Neural Impulses Process (Long)

A

The (resting) tells about what happened when a neuron is at rest. The (resting) potential is at -70 mV.

Threshold: The graded potential is when the voltage changes based on the sodium and the potassium in the neuron. The (graded) potential goes from (-69 mV) to (-56 mV). This is when the sodium and potassium is changing here and this happens in the dendrites and the soma. It’s also called depolarization.

The (action potential) occurs on the (axon). The action potential starts at the threshold. When it goes from (-54 mV) or less: it’s all action potential (as it’s going from -54 mV or less it is traveling down the axon).

Repolarization: Brings the cell back to resting potential, where the sodium (+) goes back out to the exterior, and it gets more negative inside again.

Refractory Period A neuron is resistant to a second action potential during refractory periods. The body and/or brain are still busy responding to a first stimulus.

Resting State: (-70 mV)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7AJ2uMEzZlk

https://biologydictionary.net/refractory-period/

Introduction to Psychology: Exam 2 (5 decks)

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