Psychology Chapter Three: Structures of the brain Flashcards
An interdisciplinary field of study directed at understanding the brain and its relation to behavior
Neuroscience
Neuroscience
An interdisciplinary field of study directed at understanding the brain and its relation to behavior
Neurons
The cells in the nervous system that receive and transmit information
Sensory neurons
Cells that carry environmental messages towards the spinal cord and the brain.
Interneurons
Cells that transfer information from one neuron to another; interneurons make no direct contact with the outside world.
Motor Neurons
Cells that carry information away from the central nervous system to the muscles and glands that directly produce behavior.
Glial cells
Cells that fill in space between neurons, remove waste or help neurons to communicate efficiently.
Myelin sheath
An insulating material that protects the axon and helps to speed up neural transmission
What are myelin sheaths made out of?
Glial cells
Reflexes
Largely automatic body reactions–such as the knee jerk–that are controlled primarily by spinal cord pathways.
What are dendrites?
Primary information receivers
4 major structural parts of a neuron
1) dendrites
2) soma
3) axon
4) terminal buttons
What is a soma?
The main body of the cell, which processes the information.
What is an axon?
The cell’s transmitter, which branches out near the end.
What are terminal buttons?
at the end of the axon’s branches are tiny swellings called terminal buttons. They release chemicals.
What separates neurons?
The synapse, a small space between the terminal buttons of one cell and the dendrite or cell body of another.
What is a synapse?
A small space between the terminal buttons of one cell and the dendrite or cell body of another.
What makes up the most of the cells in the brain: Glial cells, neurons, or others?
Glial cells make up 90% of the brain.
What are the gaps in a myelin sheath called, and what do they do?
Nodes of Ranvier, and they allow the action potential to jump down the axon rather than traveling from point to point.
The Nodes of Ranvier allow for what kind of transmission?
Node to node, known as saltatory conduction
What disease damages the myelin sheath?
MS
What is a neurotransmitter?
Chemical messengers released from the terminal buttons, either excitatory or inhibitory.
What is the most common neurotransmitter in the brain?
Glutamate
Glutamate
The most common neurotransmitter in the brain; usually excitatory and involved in many aspects of brain functioning, including memory.
Acetylcholine
The primary neurotransmitter between motor neurons and muscles, generally excitatory. Always required for voluntary motor movement.
Dopamine
Usually inhibitory, linked to reward and pleasure systems in the brain, decreased levels have been linked to Parkinson disease and increased levels have been linked to schizophrenia
Decreased levels of what neurotransmitter have been linked to Parkinson’s disease?
Dopamine
Increased levels of what neurotransmitter have been linked to schizophrenia?
Dopamine
The destruction of what neurotransmitter is associated with Alzheimer’s?
Acetylcholine; is used in memory functioning
Serotonin
Usually inhibitory, affects sleep, dreaming, and general arousal. It is also involved in psychological disorders such as depression, schizophrenia, and OCD
What neurotransmitter is associated with depression, schizophrenia, and OCD?
Serotonin
GABA
A neurotransmitter that may play a role in the regulation of anxiety; usually inhibitory
Define agonist
Drugs that enhance or mimic the action of neurotransmitters
Define Antagonists
Drugs that block the action of neurotransmitters
Endorphines
Morphine like chemicals that act as the brain’s natural painkillers
Two divisions of the nervous system
CNS (Central nervous system)
and
PNS (peripheral nervous system)
CNS:
Central nervous system, composed of the brain and spinal cord
PNS:
Peripheral nervous system, the collection of nerves that transmits information towards the brain and connects to the skeletal muscles to initiate movement; part of the peripheral nervous system
Parts of the PNS
Autonomic and Somatic
Nerves
Bundles of axons that make up neural “transmission cables.”
Somatic system
The collection of nerves that transmits information toward the brain and connects to the skeletal muscles to initiate movement; part of the peripheral nervous system
What nerve pathways carry information to the brain and spinal cord?
Afferent (sensory) nerve pathways
What nerve pathways carry CNS messages outward to the muscles and glands?
Efferent (motor) nerve pathways
Autonomic system
The collection of nerves that controls the more automatic needs of the body (such as heart rate, digestion, blood pressure); part of the peripheral nervous system.
What division of the nervous system controls emergency situations?
Sympathetic division
What division of the nervous system controls calming after an emergency?
Parasympthatic divison
What controls the Parasympathetic division of the nervous system?
The PNS controls the autonomic division, which controls the parasympathetic and sympathetic.
Ways to determine brain function
1) Brain Damage
2) Activating the brain
3) Monitoring the brain
4) EEG
5) CT scan
6) PET
7) MRI
What is an EEG
Electroencephalograph is a device used to monitor the gross electrical activity of the brain
What is a CT scan
Computerized tomography scan, the use of highly focused beams of X-rays to construct detailed anatomical maps of the living brain
What is a PET?
Positron emission tomography: A method for measuring how radioactive substances are absorbed in the brain; it can be used to detect how specific tasks activated different areas of the living brain
What is a MRI?
A device that uses magnetic fields and radio-wave pulses to construct detailed, three-dimensional images of the brain; “functional” MRIs can be used to map changes in the blood oxygen use as function of task activity
Uses of assessing brain damage:
Finding the areas of the brain that may be responsible for different functions
Uses of electrical brain stimulation
How activation of certain brain regions affects behavior
Uses of EEG
Shows how overall activity in the brain changes during certain activities
Uses of the CT scan
Shows tumors or injuries to the brain, as well as structural bases for chronic behavioral or psychological disorders
Uses of PET
Shows how various tasks (such as reading a book) affect different parts of the brain
Uses of MRI
A 3D view of the brain, serving as a diagnostic tool for brain abnormalities and for observation of brain function
3 major anatomical regions of the brain:
Hindbrain
Midbrain
Forebrain
Hindbrain
A primitive part of the brain that sits at the juncture point where the brain and spinal cord merge. Structures in the hindbrain, including the medulla, pons and reticular formation, act as the basic life-support system for the body.
Medulla and Pons jobs (5):
1) heart rate
2) breathing
3) blood pressure
4) reflexes such as vomiting, sneezing, and coughing.
5) Pathways for neural impulses to and from the spinal cord.
Reticular formation
A network of neurons and nerves linked to the control of general arousal, sleep, and consciousness
What is the little brain?
The cerebellum
Cerebellum
A hindbrain structure at the base of the brain that is involved in the coordination of complex motor movements,
Midbrain:
The middle portion of the brain, containing such structures as the tectum, superior colliculus, and inferior colliculus; midbrain structures serve as neural relay stations and may help coordinate reactions to sensory events.
Substantia nigra
A cluster of neurons that release dopamine from their terminal buttons. The death of these neurons is believed to be the cause of Parkinson’s
Forebrain
The outer portion of the brain, including the cerebral cortex and the structures of the limbic system
cerebral cortex
The outer layer of the brain, considered to be the seat of higher mental processing.
Thalamus
A relay station in the forebrain thought to be an important gathering point for input from the senses
Hypothalamus
A forebrain structure thought to play a role in the regulation of various motivational activities, including eating, drinking, and sexual behavior.
Limbic System
A system of structures thought to be involved In motivational and emotional behaviors (the amygdala) and memory (the hippocampus)
Where are the pons located?
Hindbrain
Where is the limbic system located?
Forebrain
Amygdala
Motivational and emotional behaviors such as fear, aggression, and defensive actions. Without this, animals are very passive.
Hippocampus
The formation of memories, especially personal events.
How many lobes does the Cerebral cortex have?
Two hemispheres with four lobes each.
Name the four lobes of the cerebral cortex
1) Frontal
2) Temporal
3) Parietal
4) Occipital
Frontal lobe
Planning and coordinating voluntary behavior and decision-making. Problem-solving, remembering, and socialization, and personality.
One of four anatomical regions of each hemisphere of the cerebral cortex, located on the top front of the brain; contains the motor cortex and may be involved in higher-level thought processes.
Wernicke’s Area
Speech comprehension, located in the temporal lobe
Broca’s area
Speech production, located in the motor cortex of the frontal lobes of the cerebral cortex of the forebrain
Parietal lobe
One of four anatomical regions of each hemisphere of the cerebral cortex, located roughly on the top middle portion of the brain; it contains the somatosensory cortex, which controls the sense of touch
Somatosensory cortex
Where the sense of touch is processed and controlled
Temporal lobe
Processing auditory information.
One of four anatomical regions of each hemisphere of the cerebral cortex, located roughly on the sides of the brain’ it’s involved in certain aspects of speech and language perception.
Where do you process auditory information?
Temporal lobe/Wernicke’s area
Where and in which lobe is touch processed?
Somatosensory cortex, parietal lobe, forebrain.
Where is problem-solving in the brain?
Frontal lobe, forebrain.
where is motivational fear processed?
Amygdala
Occipital lobe
One of four anatomical regions of each hemisphere of the cerebral cortex, located at the back of the brain; visual processing is controlled there.
Tectum
Located in the midbrain, relay stations for visual and auditory information
Corpus Callosum
The collection of nerve fibers that connects the two cerebral hemispheres and allows information to pass from one side to the other.
Two major communication systems in the body
1) Nervous system
2) Endocrine system
Adaptation
A trait that has been selected for by nature because it increases the reproductive “fitness” of that organism
Genotype
The actual genetic information inherited from one’s parents
Phenotype
A person’s observable characteristics, such as red hair. The phenotype is controlled mainly by the genotype, but it can also be influenced by the environment.
Mutation
A spontaneous change in the genetic material that occurs during the gene replication process
Family Studies
The similarities and differences among biological relatives are studied to help discover the role heredity plays in physical or psychological traits
